TYPE  STUDIES  fromUNlTED  STATES 
GEOGRAPHY 


M 

CMUNRV 

TYPE   STUDIES 

FROM 

THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


f^>f^' 


Physiographic  map  of  the  United  States,  giving  the  names  of  the  principal 
mountains,  plateaus,  and  plains. 


TYPE    STUDIES 


FROM 

THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES 

FIRST   SERIES 

BY 

CHARLES   A.    McMURRY,   Ph.D. 


THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Ltd. 

1908 

All  rights  reserved 


V 


S^ 
'''/ 


f 


Copyright,  1904, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.      Published  October,  1904. 
Reprinted  August,  1905  ;  March,  1906  ;  January,  1908. 


tUUC/VflUi^^  D^Lpt, 


PREFACE 

The  series  of  twenty-five  type  studies  included  in 
this  volume  is  designed  to  illustrate  in  some  detail  the 
second  stage  of  geography  study.  The  previous  volume 
of  "  Excursions  and  Lessons  in  Home  Geography "  con- 
tains the  introductory  lessons  in  geography  for  third 
and  fourth  grades.  It  is  the  geography  of  the  home  and 
neighborhood. 

The  present  volume  is  a  series  of  simple  type  studies 
on  the  United  States,  designed  to  introduce  children  to 
the  geography  of  our  own  country.  It  is  assumed  that 
the  chief  stress  in  early  years  (fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth 
grades)  should  be  laid  upon  American  geography,  though 
other  countries  are  not  neglected.  Where  a  standard 
geography  is  used,  these  type  studies  may  be  run  parallel 
with  the  regular  lessons  to  enrich  special  and  important 
topics. 

The  full  oral  treatment  of  these  topics  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  fourth  grade  and  in  the  fifth  grade  is  probably  the 
best  method  of  handling  them  wherever  this  is  possible. 

The  value  of  the  type  in  its  rich  descriptive  content 
and  as  a  striking  representative  of  many  similar  objects 
is  abundantly  illustrated  in  these  lessons. 

The  organization  of  a  large  body  of  interesting  and 
instructive  geographical  facts  about  such  a  centre  of 
study  exemplifies  one  of  the  chief  points  in  method. 


VI  PREFACE 

Nearly  all  the  lessons  included  in  this  volume  have 
been  repeatedly  worked  out  with  classes  of  children  in 
fourth  and  fifth  grades. 

The  "  Special  Method  in  Geography,"  published  by  The 
Macmillan  Company,  works  out  the  full  course  of  study 
in  geography  in  all  the  grades  and  discusses  at  length  the 
method  of  treating  these  types.  The  present  volume  is 
the  execution  in  its  details  of  the  second  step  in  the 
general  plan  laid  out  in  the  '^Special  Method."  In  the 
further  execution  of  this  plan,  the  author  contemplates 
another  series  of  type  studies  of  North  America,  which 
will  deal  with  the  more  complex  and  difficult  topics  of 
our  own  continent.  This  will  include  the  more  compre- 
hensive physiographic  topics,  the  larger  manufacturing 
and  commercial  subjects,  and  some  of  the  large  cities  as 
centres  of  population  and  trade. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

The  Hudson  Kiver o  1 

The  Hoosac  Tunnel          .        o        ......  15 

Cod-fisheries .23 

Niagara  Falls  and  the  Commerce  of  the  Great  Lakes  39 

The  James  Kiver 48 

A  Coal-mine 63 

Orange  Groves  in  Florida 81 

The  Illinois  River    .        .        . 89 

The  Prairies 99 

The  Pineries  and  Lumbering 108 

The  Upper  Mississippi 120 

The  Hard-wood  Forest  Region  of  the  Ohio  Valley      .  132 

The  Ohio  River  Valley  ...        c        ...        .  143 

Minneapolis 154 

Lake  Superior ,        .  163 

The  Surface  of  Tennessee .  175 

Trip  on  the  Lower  Mississippi       o 181 

Cotton  and  Cotton  Plantations 198 

Sugar  Production 209 

A  Cattle  Ranch ,        c        .  218 

Pike's  Peak  and  Vicinity 233 

Irrigation  and  the  Big  Ditch  at  Denver          .        .        .  241 

The  Great  Basin  of  Utah  and  Nevada     .        .        .        .  252 

A  Gold  Mine  in  California 261 

The  Salmon  Fisheries  of  the  Columbia      ....  275 

vii 


TYPE   STUDIES   FROM   THE 
GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


o>«Ko 


THE   HUDSON   RIVER 

The  Hudson  River  springs  from  the  steep,  rocky, 
mountain  slopes  of  tlie  Adirondacks,  dark  with  pine 
woods,  and  finds  its  mouth  at  New  York  Bay  and  the 
Narrows,  just  below  the  end  of  Manhattan  Island.  This 
river  is  so  broad  and  deep  just  west  of  New  York  city 
that  it  has  never  been  bridged.  In  fact,  there  is  no  bridge 
across  the  river  till  one  gets  beyond  West  Point  in  the 
Highlands.  Ever  shice  the  days  when  Henry  Hudson 
and  his  crew  on  the  Half  Moon  sailed  up  this  broad  stream, 
it  has  been  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  American  rivers 
to  the  traveller. 

The  waters  of  the  Hudson  fill  a  great,  trough-like  valley 
about  150  miles  long.  And  yet  it  is  not  wholly  the 
waters  of  the  river,  for  the  salt  waters  of  the  ocean 
have  poured  in  with  its  rising  tides  and  helped  to  fill 
up  this  trough.  The  whole  trough  of  the  Hudson  used 
to  lie  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  in  those  days  a 
small,  shallow  river  flowed  down  past  Manhattan,  but 
for  some  cause  the  land  sank  down  till  the  great  valley 
was  somewhat  below  the    sea-level,  and   now   the   tides 

B  1 


TYPE  STUDIES 


ircin  the  cceaii  leaeb  as  far  as  Albany.  The  trough  of  the 
Hudson  is  called  a  drowned  valley,  and  it  might  be  called 
an  arm  of  the  sea,  as  Henry  Hudson  thought  it  was  when 
he  first  sailed  up  its  channel  for  many  miles,  hoping  to 
find  an  outlet  to  another  ocean  to  the  north  or  west. 

Unlike  most  rivers,  the  banks  of  the  Hudson  are  in- 
teresting to  the  traveller  down  to  its  very  mouth  at  New 


FiCx.  1. 
The  drowned  valley  of  the  Hudson,  looking  north  from  West  Point. 

York  city.  Even  Manhattan  Island  consists  partly  of 
rock  ridges  rising  two  hundred  feet  above  the  Hudson. 
For  nearly  sixty  miles  just  above  New  York,  the  river 
passes  through  a  rugged  and  even  mountainous  region. 
In  the  neighborhood  of  West  Point  the  river  has  cut  its 
way  through  a  range  of  mountains  called  the  Highlands, 
which  stretched  directly  across  its  path.     The  deep,  nar- 


THE  HUDSON  BIVER  3 

row  gorge  which  the  river  has  carved  out  through  these 
rugged  mountains  displays  the  most  interesting  scenery 
of  the  river.  The  national  military  academy  of  West 
Point  lies  like  a  nest  two  hundred  feet  above  the  river,  in 
the  very  centre  of  this  mountain  scenery. 

North  of  the  Highlands  the  banks  of  the  Hudson  are 
flattened  out  into  a  broader  valley.     Twelve  miles  to  the 


Fig.  2. 
A  view  in  New  York  harbor,  showing  the  vessels  coming  and  going. 

west  are  seen  the  blue  ridges  of  the  Catskills,  with  their 
deep  valleys,  summer  hotels,  and  broad  mountain  views. 
They  are  a  much  visited  summer  resort. 

From  the  deck  of  one  of  the  Hudson  River  steamers 
one  may  get  the  best  views  of  the  changing  scenery  in 
passing  northward.  In  the  summer  and  autumn  these 
steamers  leave  the  New  York  wharf  daily  at  eight  forty- 
five  in  the  morning,  and  reach  Albany  at  six  in  the  even- 
ing. This  gives  a  nine  hours'  trip  well  filled  with 
beautiful  scenery.      At  New  York  city  the  Hudson  River 


4  TYPU  STUDIES 

is  enlivened  with  ships  and  boats  of  all  descriptions,  from 
a  rowboat  to  an  ocean  liner.  On  both  sides  of  the  river 
are  miles  of  docks  and  piers  of  the  great  ship  companies, 
and  the  lofty  buildings  of  lower  New  York  tower  far 
above  the  older  buildings. 

Before  leaving  the  shores  of  Manhattan  Island,  we  see 
the  steep  black  rocks  of  the  Palisades,  stretching  like  a 
mighty  wall  along  the  western  shore,  with  scarcely  rooni 
enough  at  their  base  for  a  house  or  factory.  For  fifteen 
miles  they  stand  along  the  river's  side  almost  unbroken, 
crowned  with  forests  at  the  top,  and  rising  more  than  three 
hundred  feet  abruptly  from  the  river. 

On  the  east  side  above  Yonkers,  on  the  wooded  slopes 
and  hilltops,  are  seen  some  of  the  villas  and  country  homes 
of  wealthy  New  York  families.  Nearer  the  shore,  but 
hidden  by  the  bushes  and  trees,  is  Sunnyside,  where  Irv- 
ing lived,  and,  a  little  farther  on,  Tarrytown  and  Sleepy 
Hollow,  famous  in  connection  with  Irving's  life  and 
writings.  The  widening  of  the  river  at  Tappan  Bay 
and  Haverstraw  Bay  gives  it  the  appearance  of  a  placid 
lake  at  one  place  four  miles  across,  and  from  the  sloping 
hillsides  many  beautiful  villas  look  down  upon  these 
broad  stretches  of  the  Hudson. 

Passing  into  the  Highlands,  the  stream  narrows,  as  its 
waters  have  found  it  difficult  to  cut  their  way  through  the 
hard  rock  of  the  mountain  roots  which  close  in  upon  it 
along  this  rocky  gorge. 

A  visit  to  West  Point,  by  climbing  the  well-built  road 
which  winds  up  to  the  level  plateau,  is  well  worth  our  time. 
Many  famous  generals  of  the  Mexican  and  Civil  wars  re- 
ceived here  their  military  training.  The  trophies  of  old  guns 
and  weapons  of  war  in  the  museum  are  of  curious  interest. 


THE  HUDSON  RIVER 


The  broad  parade  grounds,  where  the  young  soldiers  are 
drilled,  are  surrounded  by  pleasant  shaded  walks. 

Four  hundred  feet  higher  up  the  hillside  is  Fort  Put- 
nam, from  which  may  be  had  a  broad  survey  of  the  river 
and  mountains.  Below  the  grounds,  along  the  wooded 
slopes,  one  may  climb  down  to  the  rocky  spurs  of  the 
mountains,  which  dip  their  barren  sides  into  the  river. 

The  view  northward  from  West  Point,  perhaps  the 
most  beautiful  on  the  river,  stretches  away  between  moun- 
tains that  rise  from  twelve  to  sixteen  hundred  feet  above 
the  stream. 

During  the  Revolution  the  guns  of  this  strongly  fortified 
position,  commanding  the  narrows  below,  kept  the  control 
of  the  river  for  the  Americans. 

After  coming  out  of  the  Highlands,  the  great  passenger 
steamer  passes  under  the  high  railroad  bridge  at  Pough- 
keepsie.  This 
city  of  twenty- 
five  thousand 
people  lies  on  a 
plain  some  two 
hundred  feet 
above  the  river, 
with  a  back- 
ground of  hills 
much  higher. 
Vassar  College, 
a  famous  school 
for  women,  and  several  other  schools,  are  here. 

West  of  the  Hudson  the  Catskill  Mountains  come  in 
view,  but  the  rest  of  the  journey  to  Albany  is  less  interest- 
ing from  a  scenic  point  of  view. 


Fig.  3. 
Railway  bridge  across  the  Hudson  at  Poughkeepsie. 


6 


TYPE  STUDIES 


Besides  the  great  passenger  steamers  which  make  their 
trips  each  day  and  night  up  and  down  the  river,  we  notice 
a  great  amount  of  heavy  freighting  on  canal-boats  and 
barges  and  freight  steamers.  A  tugboat  or  steamer  is 
seen  trailing  a  whole  fleet  of  heavy-laden  canal-boats 
down  the  river. 


Fig.  4. 
The  forest-covered  slopes  of  the  Adirondacks,  with  a  beautiful  lake  nestled  in 
the  midst  of  the  forest.     (Copyrighted,  1888,  by  S.  R.  Stoddard,  Glens 
Falls,  N.Y.) 

Barges  loaded  with  brick  or  stone  are  constantly  sent 
down  the  stream  to  Ncav  York.  All  along  the  valley  of 
the  lower  Hudson  are  extensive  clay  beds  of  excellent 
quality  for  brick  making.  At  various  points  along  the 
shores  one  sees  immense  brick-yards.  By  means  of  the 
river  barges  these  bricks  can  be  easily  and  cheaply  sent  to 


THE  HUDSON  RIVER  1 

New  York,  where  they  are  used  in  vast  quantities.  The 
valley  of  the  Hudson  is  said  to  be  the  largest  brick  manu- 
facturing district  in  the  world.  From  the  stone  quarries 
along  the  river  are  also  obtained  great  quantities  of  flag- 
stone for  pavements  in  New  York  and  neighboring  cities ; 
also  crushed  stone,  cement,  and  lime.  There  are  five 
hundred  stone  quarries  in  one  county  near  the  banks  of 
the  Hudson.  All  the  cities  and  towns  along  the  Hudson 
are  centres  of  important  manufacturing,  and  this  calls  for 
the  shipment  of  many  raw  materials  by  boat  up  and  down 
the  river,  such  as  coal,  lumber,  iron,  and  grain. 

On  both  sides  of  the  Hudson  River  are  double-track 
railroads,  the  New  York  Central  on  the  east  and  the  West 
Shore  on  the  west,  which  do  a  very  heavy  freight  and 
passenger  traffic.  In  a  number  of  places  on  both  sides, 
the  railroads  pass  through  long  tunnels  cut  through  the 
rocky  cliffs  projecting  into  the  river.  Anthony's  Nose,  on 
the  east  side,  is  thus  pierced  by  a  tunnel,  and  another 
passes  under  the  plateau  upon  which  West  Point  stands. 
The  railroad  traffic  along  this  valley  is  very  extensive. 
A  good  part  of  the  ice  used  in  New  York  city  comes  from 
the  ice-houses  along  the  valley  sides.  A  large  proportion 
also  of  the  milk  and  vegetables  for  the  great  cities  is  shipped 
from  the  farms  and  gardens  bordering  on  the  Hudson. 

From  the  above  description,  it  is  clear  that  the  Hudson 
Valley  is  a  very  important  traffic  route  both  by  water  and 
by  rail.  The  chief  importance,  however,  of  the  valley  of 
the  Hudson  is  not  seen  in  these  things,  but  by  a  broader 
survey  of  the  connections  of  this  valley  with  western  New 
York  and  the  Great  Lakes,  and  with  Lake  Champlain. 
From  Albany,  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Hudson,  a 
canal  is  carried  to  the  foot  of  Lake  Champlain.     This  is 


8 


TYPE  STUDIES 


an  easy  means  of  transport  for  the  lumber,  stone,  iron  ore, 
and  slate  from  the  Adirondacks,  Vermont,  and  Canada. 
One  of  the  largest  lumber-yards  in  the  United  States  is 
at  Albany,  where  this  canal  connects  with  the  Hudson. 


Map  of  the 

CANALS 

of 

NEW   YORK. 

9     10     so     3.0     4,0    CO     6P     7.0    8f) 
SCALE  OF  MILES 


Fig.  5. 
The  Erie  Canal  and  other  water  routes  of  New  York  and  vicinity. 

From  Albany  along  the  valley  of  the  Mohawk  across 
the  plain  of  northern  New  York  to  Buffalo  extends  the 
famous  Erie  Canal.  It  is  363  miles  long  and  cost  nearly 
^10,000,000  when  first  built,  but  much  more  has  been  spent 
upon  it  since.     The  great  amount  of  money  spent  upon 


THE  HUDSON  RIVER  9 

this  canal,  and  the  trunk  railroad  lines  which  run  parallel 
to  it,  explain  to  some  extent  the  importance  of  connecting 
the  commerce  of  the  Great  Lakes  with  the  Hudson  and 
New  York  city.  The  Erie  Canal  is  the  only  canal  that 
has  been  built  to  connect  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  along 
the  coast  of  the  United  States  with  the  Great  Lakes  and 
the  great  agricultural  states  of  the  west.  The  New  York 
Central  has  four  tracks  connecting  Albany  with  Buffalo, 
and  the  Lake  Shore  has  two  tracks.  Heavy  trains  are 
passing  constantly  both  ways  on  these  lines,  and  the  ton- 
nage is  enormous.  But  we  are  not  able  to  understand 
why  so  much  freight  should  pass  along  the  Mohawk  Val- 
ley and  down  the  Hudson  till  we  observe  that  there  is  no 
other  low-level,  easy  way  of  getting  across  the  Alleghany 
Mountains  to  the  Atlantic.  All  the  other  railroads  through 
southern  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  are  compelled  to 
climb  more  than  two  thousand  feet  over  mountain  ridges 
to  get  to  Pittsburg  or  Buffalo,  while  farther  south  in  Vir- 
ginia the  mountains  are  still  more  rugged.  The  shipment 
of  grain,  meat,  and  other  heavy  products  by  way  of  the 
Great  Lakes  to  Buffalo  is  enormous,  and  most  of  these 
goods  find  their  way  down  the  Mohawk  Valley  and  the 
Hudson  to  New  York. 

By  this  broad  survey  of  the  commerce  of  the  United 
States,  we  are  able  to  see  that  the  Hudson  River  and 
New  York  city  are  the  outlet  toward  the  sea  for  the 
richest  and  most  productive  interior  parts  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  people  of  New  York  state  are  now  seriously 
considering  the  expenditure  of  one  hundred  millions  of 
dollars  in  enlarging  and  deepening  the  Erie  Canal. 

The  importance  of  this  traffic  route  is  further  seen  by 
the  fact  that  "  80  per  cent  of  the  people  and  90  per  cent  of 


10 


TYPE  STUDIES 


the  wealth  of  New  York  state  are  in  the  counties  along 
the  canal  and  the  Hudson  River." 

The  cheapness  with  which  raw  materials  can  be  secured 
over  this  main  traffic  route  has  made  the  cities  along  it 


Fig.  6. 
The  State  Capitol  at  Albany.     (Copyrighted  by  G.  P.  HaU  &  Son,  N.Y.,  1899.) 


the    centres   for    the    most    extensive   manufacturing,    as 
Rochester,  Utica,  Albany,  Troy,  and  many  others. 

Albany  on  the  upper  Hudson  has  a  very  favorable  loca- 
tion at  the  junction  of  the  two  canals  from  Lake  Cham- 
plain  and  Lake  Erie.  The  New  York  Central,  the  Fitch- 
burg  route  through  the  Hoosac  Tunnel  to  Boston,  and 


THE  HUDSON  RIVER 


11 


other   important   lines   make   it   also    a   leading  railroad 
centre. 

Just  before  joining  the  Hudson  the  Mohawk  drops  over 
a  rock  ledge,  giving  the  important  water-power  which  has 
built  up  the  manufactures  of  Cohoes.  There  is  also  water- 
power  at  Little 
Falls  and  at 
Glens  Falls. 

The  valley  of 
the  Hudson  has 
witnessed  many 
interesting 
events  in  Ameri- 
can history. 
From  the  days 
of  its  first  ex- 
ploration by 
Henry  Hudson 
till  the  close  of 
the  Revolution, 
it  was  the  scene 
of  great  military  campaigns.  The  first  settlements  along 
the  valley  by  the  Dutch  and  English,  the  dealings  with 
the  Mohawks  and  other  Iroquois  tribes,  the  campaigns 
of  the  French  and  Indian  wars,  Burgoyne's  expedition  and 
its  battles,  the  story  of  Arnold  and  Andre,  the  operations 
of  Washington,  the  important  forts  at  many  points  along 
the  Hudson,  the  Mohawk,  and  Lake  Champlain  have 
added  greatly  to  the  interest  of  the  people  in  this  most 
popular  of  American  rivers. 

The   banks  of   the    Hudson   are  also    crowned  with  a 
number  of  interesting  monuments  :  the  tomb  of  General 


Fig.  7. 

The  water-power  in  the  Hudson  at  Glens  Falls.    (Copy- 
righted, 1890,  by  S.  R.  Stoddard,  Glens  Falls,  N.Y.) 


12 


TYPE  STUDIES 


Grant,  which  overlooks  the  river  from  a  commanding 
point  near  Columbia  University  at  the  upper  end  of  Man- 
hattan Island  ;  the  monument  at  Tarrytown  to  the  captors 
of  Major  Andre ;  and  the  battle  monument  on  the  field  of 
Saratoga.  At  Bennington  and  West  Point  are  also 
historic  memorials. 

Washington  Irving  has  thrown  a  romantic  interest  into 
many  of  the  scenes  along  the  Hudson.  His  home  at 
Sunnyside,  near  Tarrytown,  his  burial  place  near  the  Old 


Fig.  8. 

A  view  of  the  Columbia  University  Library  and  other  buildings.  The  Hudson 
River  and  Palisades  are  in  the  background.  (Copyrighted  by  G.  P.  Hall 
&  Son,  N.Y.,  1891.) 

Dutch  Church,  the  stories  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  Dolph  Heiliger, 
and  Rip  Van  Winkle,  besides  the  Indian  legends  and  war- 
like exploits  for  which  the  valleys  of  the  Hudson  and 
Mohawk  are  noted,  lend  the  charm  of  poetry  and  romance 
to  this  whole  region.  Some  of  Fenimore  Cooper's  novels 
also  find  their  theatre  of  action  on  the  Hudson,  as  '^  The  Last 
of  the  Mohicans."  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  stories  of  Irv- 
ing and  Cooper  have  lent  as  great  an  interest  to  the  scenery 
of  the  Hudson  as  great  battles  and  warlike  campaigns. 
In  comparing  the  Hudson  with  the  Connecticut,  DeW 


THE  HUDSON  BIVER  13 

ware,  Susquehanna,  and  Potomac,  we  may  get  a  still  better 
notion  of  its  size  and  importance.  The  Connecticut  is 
450  miles  long  while  the  Hudson  is  but  300.  But  the 
Connecticut  is  not  a  drowned  river  valley,  and  is  navigable 
only  for  smaller  vessels,  being  aided  by  artificial  dams  and 
channels  at  various  points.  This  river  has  no  canal  outlet 
to  the  commerce  of  the  west,  and  as  a  traffic  route  it  is 
of  no  special  importance. 

The  Delaware,  like  the  Hudson,  is  open  to  the  ocean 
tide  as  far  as  Trenton,  155  miles,  and  is  navigable  to  this 
point.  Philadelphia  is  located  not  far  from  its  mouth, 
and  is  reached  by  large  steamers.  But  the  Delaware 
Valley  opens  out  no  good  traffic  route  to  the  west,  and 
above  Philadelphia  has  no  great  commercial  value. 

The  Susquehanna  is  400  miles  long  and  rises  in  the  pla- 
teau of  central  New  York.  It  is  a  shallow  stream  of  little 
value  for  navigation  and  opens  up  no  easy  passage  for  a 
canal  or  railroad  across  the  Alleghanies. 

The  Potomac  is  400  miles  long,  and  has  tide-water  navi- 
gation for  large  ships  to  Washington.  Above  this  are 
falls  and  rapids,  and  the  plan  of  building  a  canal  along 
this  route  to  Pittsburg  was  finally  abandoned  for  a  rail- 
way which  rises  to  a  height  of  2400  feet  in  crossing  the 
mountains. 

The  James  and  other  rivers  farther  south  are  still  less 
able  to  break  through  the  mountain  barrier  separating  the 
east  from  the  west,  although  the  great  valley  of  Virginia 
does  open  a  good  route  for  a  railroad  into  East  Tennessee. 

After  such  a  survey  of  the  rivers  flowing  to  the  Atlan- 
tic seaboard,  it  is  quite  clear  that  the  Hudson  River  and 
Mohawk  alone  offer  an  easy  low-level  route  for  a  canal 
and  for  railroads,  for  the  shipment  of  heavy  products  back 


14  TYPE  STUDIES 

and  forth  between  the  east  and  west.  The  great  bulk  of 
the  surplus  agricultural  products  of  the  middle  west  and 
lake  states  find  their  way  along  the  lakes  and  by  way  of 
the  Hudson  Valley  to  New  York  city  and  then  to  Europe. 
This  makes  New  York  city  the  leading  seaport  of  the 
United  States.  About  half  of  the  imports  and  exports  of 
the  United  States  thus  pass  through  New  York  harbor. 

The  Pennsylvania  Central,  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  and 
other  roads  crossing  the  Alleghanies  to  the  west,  also 
carry  a  large  quantity  of  goods,  but  the  Hudson  River 
route  is  so  much  easier  and  cheaper  that  it  naturally  gains 
the  bulk  of  the  trade. 

The  Hudson  is  one  of  the  shortest  of  American  rivers, 
but  the  fact  that  it  is  a  drowned  valley  and  connects  easily 
with  the  Great  Lakes  has  made  it  the  most  important 
waterway  in  America. 

In  later  studies  the  Hudson  may  be  compared  with  the 
Ohio,  Mississippi,  and  other  American  rivers. 

Later  still  in  the  course,  in  studying  Europe,  the 
Thames,  the  Rhine,  and  other  navigable  streams  may  be 
compared  with  the  Hudson  as  to  commercial  importance, 
scenery,  and  historical  interest.  Such  comparisons  are 
valuable  in  bringing  out  more  clearly  the  chief  points 
both  in  advance  and  in  review  work. 


THE   HOOSAC   TUNNEL 

The  Hoosac  Tunnel,  which  pierces  the  Hoosac  Moun- 
tain wall  in  western  Massachusetts,  is  the  chief  avenue 
through  which  the  commerce  of  New  York  state  and 
the  west  finds  its  way  to  Boston  and  New  England. 

The  Hoosac  and  Taconic  Mountain  ranges,  extending 
north  through  western  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts, 
were  for  many  years  a  serious  obstruction  to  commerce 
between  New  England  and  the  western  states. 

When  the  Erie  Canal  was  completed  from  Buffalo  to 
Albany,  the  people  of  Boston  and  New  England  felt  that 
the  rich  commerce  of  the  west  would  be  lost  to  them  and 
fall  to  New  York  city. 

To  prevent  this,  the  people  of  Massachusetts,  in  1825, 
through  its  legislature,  appointed  commissioners  to  sur- 
vey a  canal  route  from  Boston  to  Albany,  so  that  a  water 
line  should  be  kept  open  from  Boston  to  Chicago  and  New 
Orleans.  The  commissioners  reported  in  favor  of  a  tun- 
nel for  the  canal  through  the  Hoosac  Mountains  at  the 
point  where  the  railroad  tunnel  now  passes. 

But  about  this  time  and  soon  after,  railroads  began  to  be 
built,  and  in  a  few  years  canal  schemes  were  given  up  in 
favor  of  railroads. 

Loammi  Baldwin,  the  first  engineer  to  survey  the  route 
for  the  canal,  was  enthusiastic  in  favor  of  this  project. 
He  said  that  "  the  finger  of  Providence  had  pointed  out 
this  route  from  the  east  to  the  west."     A  friend  standing 

15 


16 


TYPE  STUDIES 


by  said,  "  '  Twas  a  great  pity  the  same  finger  wasn't  thrust 
through  the  mountain." 

The  whole  mountain  range  between  Connecticut  and 
the  Hudson  is  many  miles  across,  but  the  central  range  is 
only  five  miles  through.     On  the  east  side  the  Deerfield 

River  has  cut  its  way  for  thirty 
miles  from  the  very  foot  of  the 
central  ridge  of  the  Hoosac 
range  to  the  Connecticut 
River,  and  furnishes  ,an  easy 
route  for  a  railroad  to  the  base 
of  this  mountain  wall.  On  the 
west  the  Hoosac  River,  with 
its  deep  valley,  comes  close 
against  the  central  mountain 
wall  and  winds  westward  to 
the  Hudson,  furnishing  like- 
wise an  easy  route  for  railroad 
traffic.  But  the  backbone  of 
the  Hoosac  ridge  rises  seven- 
teen hundred  feet  above  these 
valleys  and  is  five  miles  across. 
It  was  necessary  to  pierce  this 
mountain  with  a  railroad  tun- 
nel if  Boston  and  New  Eng- 
FiG-  9.  land  were  to  have  their  proper 

share  of  the  vast  commerce  of  the  west. 

As  early  as  1842  a  railroad  from  Boston  to  Albany  had 
been  completed,  by  way  of  Springfield  and  Pittsfield, 
which  climbed  over  the  mountains  farther  south  with 
steep  and  difficult  grades ;  but  this  was  too  difficult  a 
route  for  railroad  traffic  on  a  large  scale,  and  in  1850  the 


THE  HOOSAC  TUNNEL  17 

Troy  and  Greenfield  Railroad  Company  was  organized  to 
build  a  road  from  Greenfield  to  Troy,  there  already  being 
a  road  completed  from  Boston  to  Greenfield.  Boston  also 
has  other  important  railroads  connecting  less  directly  with 
the  west,  as  the  Grand  Trunk  of  Canada,  coming  down 
through  Maine,  the  Vermont  Central,  and  the  road  to  New 
York.  But  none  of  these  bring  Boston  into  direct  touch 
with  the  commerce  of  the  lake  states  and  the  great  west. 

In  1852  the  railroad  company  organized  to  construct 
this  road  began  work  on  the  tunnel.  It  was  decided  to 
enter  the  mountain  from  both  sides  at  once,  so  as  to  hasten 
the  completion  and  render  the  work  easier.  Careful  sur- 
veys and  measurements  across  the  mountain  were  neces- 
sary so  as  to  cause  the  two  tunnels  to  meet  exactly  in  the 
middle  of  the  mountain.  The  floor  of  each  tunnel  was 
sloped  upward  at  the  rate  of  twenty  feet  to  the  mile,  so  as 
to  allow  the  water,  which  was  constantly  flooding  into  the 
parts  excavated,  to  flow  out  and  into  the  streams.  Great 
care  was  taken  in  the  surveys  and  measurements  across 
the  mountains,  so  as  to  bring  the  tunnels  face  to  face 
when  the  work  should  be  completed  after  years  of  labor. 
The  digging  was  first  begun  on  the  east  side,  and  a  great 
drilling  machine  weighing  seventy-five  tons  was  set  up. 
It  drilled  a  circular  groove  into  the  face  of  the  cliff  about 
twenty  feet  in  diameter  and  a  foot  wide.  Then  the  ex- 
posed rock  was  to  be  split  and  blasted  out.  This  machine 
soon  broke  down,  and  was  sold  for  old  iron.  For  several 
years  after  this  hand  drills  were  used,  and  into  the  holes 
drilled  into  the  face  of  the  rock  charges  of  powder  were 
placed  and  exploded  so  as  to  crush  and  shatter  the  rock. 
But  the  progress  made  with  the  hand  drills  was  so  slow 
that  it  was  necessary  to  find  a  more  rapid  mode  of  exca- 
c 


18  TYPE  STUDIES 

vating  the  rock.  A  machine  drill  was  invented  to  be 
driven  by  compressed  air,  as  steam-engines  could  not  be 
used  in  the  tunnel  on  account  of  the  smoke  and  gases 
produced.  The  compressed  air  was  conducted  from  the 
power  house  outside  the  tunnel  by  means  of  large  iron 
pipes  to  the  drilling  machine  placed  at  the  upper  end  of 
the  tunnel.  By  means  of  these  machine  drills  the  men 
were  able  to  push  the  tunnel  forward  at  the  rate  of  150 
feet  a  month  on  the  east  side  and  90  feet  on  the  west 
side,  where  the  rock  was  harder. 

The  portal  of  the  tunnel  in  the  east  end  is  in  the  solid 
rock  and  is  twenty  feet  high  and  twenty-four  feet  wide. 
For  the  removal  of  the  broken  rock  to  the  mouth  of  the 
tunnel,  cars  drawn  by  mules  and  running  upon  a  track 
tiirough  the  tunnel  were  used  at  first.  But  as  the  dis- 
tance increased  this  was  found  too  slow  a  process,  and  a 
small  steam-engine  placed  near  the  entrance  was  used  to 
haul  the  cars  swiftly  back  and  forth. 

Gunpowder  was  used  in  the  softer  rock  for  blasting 
purposes,  but  in  the  harder  rock  nitroglycerine  cartridges 
from  one  and  one-half  feet  to  two  feet  long  and  one  and 
one-half  inches  in  diameter  were  used.  Several  of  these 
were  inserted  at  one  time  into  the  holes  drilled  into  the 
face  of  the  rock,  then  connected  with  a  fuse  and  electric 
wires  leading  to  an  electrical  machine  some  distance  down 
the  tunnel.  When  the  electric  current  was  turned  on,  a 
deafening  noise  was  heard,  and  the  rock  mass  was  shattered 
into  fragments.  When  the  work  was  in  full  progress,  the 
noises  in  the  tunnel  were  terrific,  the  rattling  of  tlie  cars, 
the  pounding  of  the  drills,  and  the  explosions  of  dynamite 
in  the  narrow  passage  creating  a  fearful  tumult. 

The  men  worked  in  three  divisions :  one,  at  the  upper  end 


THE  HOOSAC  TUNNEL  19 

of  the  tunnel,  were  blasting  out  a  passage  twenty-four  feet 
wide  and  eight  feet  high  ;  a  second  group  half  a  mile  far- 
ther toward  the  entrance  were  taking  off  six  feet  more  from 
the  top  of  the  tunnel.  A  third  group  still  nearer  the  en- 
trance completed  the  arch  to  a  height  of  twenty  feet.  The 
men  worked  also  in  relays  of  three  divisions,  eight  hours 
each,  and  kept  the  work  up  day  and  night. 

On  the  west  side  of  the  mountain,  as  the  tunnel  was 
pushed  -into  the  hillside,  the  engineers  soon  came  upon  a 
soft,  crumbling  rock  almost  as  loose  as  quicksand.  The 
walls  caved  in  and  filled  up  the  tunnel  as  fast  as  it  was 
dug,  and  it  was  extremely  difficult  to  make  any  headway. 
A  complete  casing  of  timber  was  built  close  up  to  the  end 
of  the  tunnel  and  extended  forward  as  fast  as  the  crum- 
bling material  was  removed.  Under  this  framework  a  heavy 
brick  arch  was  built  to  support  the  weight  above.  As  the 
loose  materials  at  the  bottom  would  not  support  the  walls 
of  the  arch,  an  inverted  brick  arch  was  built  at  the  bottom 
of  the  tunnel,  and  thus  a  complete  brick  tube  was  formed. 
In  this  manner  the  tunnel,  seven  layers  of  brick  in  thickness, 
was  extended  700  feet  through  the  soft  and  crumbling 
rock. 

To  avoid  this  crumbling  rock  the  miners  climbed  the 
side  of  the  sloping  mountain  and  about  half  a  mile  from 
the  west  entrance  sunk  a  shaft  318  feet  deep  to  the  level  of 
the  tunnel,  and  lifting  the  material  through  the  shaft  began 
to  extend  the  tunnel  eastward  and  westward. 

The  Hoosac  mountain  ridge,  as  shown  by  the  diagram, 
consists  of  two  ridges  with  a  valley  between  them.  In 
order  to  excavate  the  tunnel  more  rapidly  a  shaft  was  sunk 
in  this  upper  valley  to  the  level  of  the  tunnel  and  the  work 
of  excavation  was  extended  in  both  directions,  the  rock 


20 


TYPE  STUDIES 


and  dirt  being  lifted  to  the  top  of  this  shaft  in  cars  and 
dumped.  This  central  shaft  was  1030  feet  deep  and  re- 
quired four  years  of  labor  before  the  level  of  the  tunnel 
was  reached.  It  was  elliptical  in  form,  twenty-seven  feet 
the  long  way,  parallel  with  the  tunnel  and  fifteen  feet  wide. 
Of  course  the  most  accurate  mathematical  calculations  were 
necessary  to  determine  the  exact  level,  and  to  keep  the 
direction  of  the  tunnel  at  the  foot  of  a  narrow  shaft  1030 
feet  deep. 

During  the  time  of  tunnelling  and  sinking  the  shafts 
many  serious  accidents  occurred  and  many  lives  were  lost. 


Profile  of  the  Hoosac  Mountain. 
Fig.  10. 

The  Avorst  of  all  these  accidents  occurred  at  this  shaft  when 
it  had  been  sunk  about  six  hundred  feet.  A  gasolene 
engine  had  been  used  for  lighting  the  shaft,  but  was  de- 
clared unsafe.  In  a  second  effort  to  use  it,  the  buildings 
at  the  top  of  the  shaft  caught  fire,  and  the  engineer  was 
driven  from  his  post.  Thirteen  men  who  had  just  gone 
to  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  perished  miserably,  being  prob- 
ably suffocated  by  the  smoke  of  the  falling  timbers. 

When  the  enterprise  of  building  this  tunnel  was  just 
begun,  it  was  in  the  hands  of  a  railroad  company.  But  the 
legislature  of  Massachusetts,  after  repeated  requests,  in 
1854  subscribed  $2,000,000   to    the  enterprise  on  certain 


THE  HO O SAC   TUNNEL  21 

conditions.  In  1862  by  the  foreclosure  of  a  mortgage 
held  by  the  state  the  whole  management  fell  to  the  com- 
missioners appointed  by  the  state.  As  the  work  pro- 
gressed, the  amount  needed  for  its  completion  increased 
rather  than  diminished.  When  the  tunnel  was  finally 
completed,  in  1875,  after  twenty-two  years  of  labor,  it  had 
cost  $14,000,000.  The  work  was  great  and  difficult  beyond 
expectation.  When  it  was  begun  no  such  vast  undertak- 
ing had  been  tried  in  this  country  or  in  Europe.  At  the 
present  time  scores  of  trains  pass  through  it  daily,  car- 
rying the  grain  and  meats  of  the  west  to  .  Boston  and 
Europe  and  taking  back  the  manufactures  of  New  Eng- 
land and  Europe. 

The  railroads  that  cross  the  Alleghany  and  Rocky 
mountains  of  North  America  pass  through  many  tunnels, 
but  none  so  long  and  difficult  of  construction  as  the 
Hoosac.  At  Port  Huron,  Michigan,  a  tunnel  passes  under 
the  St.  Clair  River.  In  Chicago  two  tunnels  pass  under 
the  Chicago  River. 

The  railroads  crossing  the  Alleghanies  from  east  to 
west  have  many  tunnels  piercing  the  mountains.  Usually 
the  roads  follow  the  valleys  of  streams,  but  in  crossing 
the  ridges  which  form  the  watersheds  between  rivers,  it 
is  often  found  necessary  to  cut  a  tunnel.  The  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  road  with  its  branches  has  forty-four  tunnels, 
the  combined  length  of  them  being  more  than  seven  miles. 
The  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  road  has  about  seven  miles  of 
tunnels  in  crossing  the  Alleghanies. 

The  Rocky  Mountains  are  tunnelled  in  many  places 
by  railroads.  One  of  the  great  tunnels  is  in  the  Cascade 
Range  near  the  Columbia  River  in  Washington. 

In  cities  like  New  York,  Chicago,  St.   Louis,  and  Bos- 


22  TYPE  STUDIES 

ton,  we  find  tunnels  for  railroads.  In  St.  Louis  a  great 
tunnel  reaches  from  the  end  of  the  great  bridge  under 
the  business  part  of  the  city  and  emerges  again  shortly 
before  reaching  the  Grand  Central  station. 

In  Chicago  the  water  supply  is  carried  through  tun- 
nels built  under  the  lake  from  two  to  four  miles  to  the 
large  cribs  which  serve  as  intakes. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  tunnels  serve  two  distinct 
purposes,  —  either  to  pass  under  rivers  or  lakes  or  to 
penetrate  mountains. 

One  of  the  great  tunnels  of  the  world  is  the  one  in 
the  Alps,  connecting  Italy  and  France  and  called  the 
Mt.  Cenis  tunnel.  It  is  4237  feet  above  the  sea,  nearly 
eight  miles  long,  and  cost  $15,000,000.  It  is  not  built 
in  a  straight  line,  but  curves  through  the  mountain,  and 
is  wide  enough  for  two  double  railroad  tracks.  It 
was  built  about  the  same  time  as  the  Hoosac  tunnel. 
Though  it  was  begun  later,  it  was  finished  first,  but 
two  great  states  (France  and  Italy)  were  interested  in 
its  construction.  The  St.  Gothard  tunnel  between  Italy 
and  Switzerland  was  built  later.  It  is  the  longest  tunnel 
in  the  world,  being  rather  more  than  nine  and  one-fourth 
miles  long. 

There  has  been  much  talk  of  building  a  tunnel  under 
the  English  channel  connecting  France  and  England. 
The  shortest  distance  across  the  channel  is  thirty  miles. 


COD-FISHERIES 

The  cod-fisheries  along  the  shores  of  New  England 
and  farther  north  are  a  great  source  of  food  and  wealth 
to  the  people.  The  principal  centre  for  cod-fishing  and 
other  closely  related  fisheries  is  Gloucester  on  the 
northeast  coast  of  Massachusetts. 

The  people  of  New  England  from  the  earliest  explora- 
tion and  settlement  found  the  coast  swarming  with 
excellent  fish,  such  as  cod,  mackerel,  halibut,  shad,  and 
salmon.  John  Smith,  in  his  first  exploration  of  the 
New  England  coast,  described  these  rich  fishing  grounds, 
and  showed  that  they  would  prove  a  great  source  of 
profit  to  the  settlers.  It  was  fortunate  that  the  early 
colonists  found  such  an  abundant  supply  of  food  in 
the  near-by  seas,  as  the  land  was  not  very  fruitful  and 
to  this  day  has  remained  a  poor  farming  country. 

There  are  several  reasons  for  such  a  stocking  of 
New  England  waters  with  choice  food  fishes.  There 
are,  first  of  all,  excellent  feeding  grounds  for  fishes  in 
the  shallow  bays  and  inlets  throughout  these  coasts, 
from  Massachusetts  to  Newfoundland.  These  and  the 
river  mouths  are  good  spawning  grounds  for  salmon, 
shad,  and  other  varieties.  The  rocky  coast  also  allows 
the  collection  of  seaweed,  and  a  matting  on  the  shallow 
bottom,  among  which  the  fishes  find  abundance  of  small 
animal  food. 


24 


TYPE  STUDIES 


Along  the  shores  and  out  from  them  are  many   shal- 
low waters,  called  banks,  where  cod,  halibut,  and    other 

fish  are  found  in  vast 
numbers.  This  whole 
sea-coast  has  been  sunk 
to  a  lower  level  than 
formerly,  and  the  sink- 
ing has  caused  many 
bays  and  inlets  and  a 
very  irregular  coast- 
line. The  flat  shoals 
or  banks  extending  out 
along  the  coast  oander 
water  are  due  to  this 
sinking,  and  furnish 
the  fishes  with  the 
shallow  feeding  grounds 
where  they  love  to 
gather. 

Two  kinds  of  fishing 
are  commonly  carried 
on,  the  shore-line  fish- 
ing and  the  deep-sea 
fishing     on    the     great 


0  100  200  300  400 


Fig.  11. 
Sections  where  ocean  fish  are  found. 


banks,  extending  one  or  two  hundred  miles  into  the  sea. 

In  recent  years,  the  shore-line  fishing  has  diminished  in 
importance,  while  fishing  on  the  banks,  especially  along 
the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Newfoundland,  has  employed 
hundreds  of  fishing  schooners.  For  three  miles  out  from 
the  shore  the  fishing  belongs  wholly  to  the  country  whose 
shore  it  is,  but  beyond  the  three-mile  limit  the  fishing  is 
free  to  all  nations  alike. 


COB-FISHERIES 


25 


The  shore-line  fishing  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  single 
fishermen,  each  in  his  boat.  At  the  present  time  we  find 
the  lone  fisherman  all  along  the  coast  of  northern  New 
England,  but  especially  in  the  more  remote  parts  of  the 
coast.  He  has  his 
dory,  in  which  he 
goes  out  upon  the 
sea  every  day  the 
weather  permits. 
His  home,  often  no 
more  than  a  shanty 
surrounded  by  a 
small  and  not  well- 
kept  garden,  is  on 
the  shore  of  a  cove 
which  furnishes  par- 
tial or  complete  pro- 
tection to  his  boat. 
Early  each  morning,  at  an  hour  when  most  of  us  are 
abed,  he  goes  out  in  his  boat  to  attend  to  his  lobster 
pots,  nets,  and  trawls,  sailing  when  possible,  rowing  when 
necessary.  His  life  is  a  simple  one  and  his  needs  are  few, 
but  he  is  his  own  master,  free  and  independent. 

Many  of  the  fish  brought  in  by  the  single  fisherman  in 
his  dory  are  sold  fresh  in  the  markets  along  the  coast. 

Most  of  the  fishing  on  the  banks  is  carried  on  by 
schooners  which  are  fitted  out  at  Gloucester,  or  it  may  be 
at  Boston  or  Provincetown.  The  fishing  schooners  of 
recent  times  are  fast-sailing  boats,  well  equipped  and  sea- 
worthy, and  are  sent  out  mostly  by  large  companies,  which 
fit  them  out  for  the  voyage.  The  best  of  them  resemble 
pleasure  yachts.     Their  lockers  are  well  supplied  with 


Fig.  12. 
A  fisherman,  dory,  and  lobster  pots. 


26 


TYPE  STUDIES 


fresh  vegetables,  fresh  iced  meats,  and  the  best  canned 
goods,  and  the  hard-working  fishermen  are  well  fed.  The 
sides  of  the  vessel  are  supplied  with  water-tanks,  connected 
by  good  pipes  and  faucets  with  the  basins  for  handling 
the  fish.  All  the  tools  and  machinery  needed  for  an 
easy  and  quick  cleaning  and  packing  of  the  fish  are  sup- 


FiG.  13. 
A  fishing  schooner. 

plied.  The  cabins  are  furnished  with  pictures  and  con- 
veniences like  a  modern  house.  The  captain  or  skipper 
is  a  well-seasoned  shipmaster,  and  his  crew,  if  possible, 
are  experienced  fishermen.  The  crew  share  the  profits  of 
the  catch,  after  expenses  are  taken  out,  and  are  thoroughly 
interested  in  the  success  of  their  work. 

"  Long  since,  the  demand  for  fishermen  in  Gloucester 
has  far  exceeded  the  supply  of  local  fishermen ;  and  con- 


COD-FISHERIES  27 

sequently  men  have  flocked  there  from  many  points,  as 
the  coast  of  Maine,  Nova  Scotia,  Prince  Edward  Island, 
Newfoundland,  and  the  Portuguese  Azores.  Nevertheless, 
with  all  this  diversity  of  race,  they  are  banded  together  as 
partners,  as  their  predecessors  were  when  fishing  two  in  a 
boat.  The  men  are  not  hired  by  the  owners  of  the  vessels 
at  so  much  a  day,  but  work  together  as  partners  in  a 
common  enterprise.  A  firm  may  own  dozens  of  vessels, 
and  these  are  fitted  out  with  the  necessary  apparatus  of 


Fig.  14. 

A  view  in  Gloucester  harbor,  showing  the  fishing  schooners,  the  wharves  where 
the  fish  are  landed,  and  the  buildings  in  which  they  are  stored. 

food,  each  man  being  charged  with  his  share  of  the  ex- 
pense of  outfitting.  When  the  trip  is  sold,  these  expenses 
are  deducted,  the  firm  bearing  its  share,  and  then  the 
profits  are  divided,  the  firm  naturally  getting  the  larger 
portion,  since  it  has  supplied  the  vessel  and  the  largest 
part  of  the  outfit,  and  the  captain,  or  '  skipper,'  receiving 
more  than  the  men.  The  result  is  that  each  man  feels  a 
keen  interest  in  the  success  of  every  l^rip ;  and,  barring 
the  element  of  luck,  his  share  bears  a  direct  proportion  to 
the  energy  with  which  he  and  his  fellows  work.  All  con- 
sidered, it  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  and  successful 


28  TYPE  STUDIES 

instances  of  cooperation  between  labor  and  capital  that 
the  industries  of  our  country  offer.    There  are  no  strikes.'' 

The  fishing  schooners  start  for  the  Banks  in  May  or 
June  and  spend  three  or  four  months  laying  in  a  cargo  of 
cod.  Before  starting  out,  the  hold  of  the  ship  is  well  filled 
with  salt,  to  be  used  in  salting  down  the  fish  as  fast  as 
they  are  taken. 

When  once  upon  the  Banks,  the  captain  of  the  fishing 
schooner  shifts  about  from  place  to  place  in  search  of  the 
best  fishing  grounds.  By  long  and  toilsome  experience 
he  has  become  expert  in  judging  the  weather  and  the 
habits  of  the  fish  in  wandering  along  the  sea  bottoms.  He 
knows  the  ups  and  downs  of  the  sea  bottom  all  over  the 
Grand  Banks  as  well  as  the  farmer  knows  his  fields. 

As  soon  as  he  has  found  a  good  fishing  ground,  the 
schooner  is  anchored,  and  the  dories  or  small  boats  which 
are  swinging  in  their  nests  upon  the  deck  are  let  down. 
The  hardy,  skilled  fishermen  leap  into  them,  already 
well  supplied  with  fishing  tackle  and  bait,  and  begin  to  set 
their  hooks  and  drop  them  in  for  the  catch.  Each  fisher- 
man seeks  to  outdo  the  others  in  the  number  of  fish  he 
can  bring  back  in  his  dory  as  the  fruit  of  his  day's  catch. 
As  the  boats  are  swung  to  the  deck  and  the  fish  unloaded 
into  the  bin,  a  tally  is  kept  of  each  man's  fish,  and  much 
sport  is  made  of  those  who  come  in  with  a  poor  catch. 

After  all  the  fish  have  been  pitched  into  the  pen  on 
deck,  and  the  hungry  fishermen  have  had  their  supper, 
the  work  of  "  dressing  down,"  or  cleaning  and  packing 
them  in  the  hold,  takes  place.  Kipling's  "  Captains  Coura- 
geous "  gives  the  following  description  of  the  dressing 
down :  "  The  shadow  of  the  masts  and  rigging,  with  the 
never-furled  riding-sail,  rolled  to  and  fro  on  the  heaving 


COD-FISHERIES  29 

deck  in  the  moonlight ;  and  the  pile  of  fish  by  the  stern 
shone  like  .a  dump  of  fluid  silver.  In  the  hold  there  were 
tramplings  and  rumblings  where  Disko  Troop  and  Tom 
Piatt  moved  among  the  salt-bins.  Dan  passed  Harvey  a 
pitchfork,  and  led  him  to  the  inboard  end  of  the  rough 
table,  where  Uncle  Salters  was  drumming  impatiently 
with  a  knife-haft.     A  tub  of  salt  water  lay  at  his  feet. 

" '  You  can  pitch  to  dad  an'  Tom  Piatt  down  the  tiatch, 
and  take  keer  Uncle  Salters  don't  cut  your  eye  out,' 
said  Dan,  swinging  himself  into  the  hold.  '  I'll  pass  salt 
below.' 

"  Penn  and  Manuel  stood  knee-deep  among  cod  in  the 
pen,  flourishing  long  knives.  Long  Jack,  a  basket  at  his 
feet  and  mittens  on  his  hands,  faced  Uncle  Salters  at  the 
table,  and  Harvey  stared  at  the  pitchfork  and  the  tub. 

'^ '  Hi! '  shouted  Manuel,  stooping  to  the  fish, and  bringing 
one  up,  with  a  finger  under  its  gill  and  a  finger  in  its  eye. 
He  laid  it  on  the  edge  of  the  pen  ;  the  knife-blade  glim- 
mered with  a  sound  of  tearing,  and  the  fish,  slit  from 
throat  to  vent,  with  a  nick  on  either  side  of  the  neck, 
dropped  at  Long  Jack's  feet. 

'' '  Hi ! '  said  long  Jack,  with  a  scoop  of  his  mittened  hand. 
The  cod's  liver  dropped  in  the  basket.  Another  wrench 
and  scoop  sent  the  head  and  offal  flying,  and  the 
empty  fish  slid  across  to  Uncle  Salters,  who  snorted  fiercely. 
There  was  another  sound  of  tearing,  and  the  fish,  headless, 
gutted,  and  open,  splashed  in  the  tub,  sending  the  salt 
water  into  Harvey's  astonished  mouth.  After  the  first 
yell,  the  men  were  silent.  The  cod  moved  along  as 
though  they  were  alive,  and  long  ere  Harvey  had  ceased 
wondering  at  the  miraculous  dexterity  of  it  all,  his  tub 
was  full. 


30  TYPE  STUDIES 

" '  Pitch  ! '  grunted  Uncle  Salters,  without  turning  his 
head,  and  Harvey  pitched  the  fisli  by  twos  and  threes  down 
the  hatch. 

"  '  Hi  !  Pitch  'em  bunchy! '  shouted  Dan.  '  Don't  scat- 
ter !  Uncle  Salters  is  the  best  splitter  in  the  fleet !  Watch 
him  mind  his  book  !  ' 

"  Indeed,  it  looked  a  little  as  though  the  round  uncle  were 
cutting  magazine  pages  against  time.  Manuel's  body, 
cramped  over  from  the  hips,  stayed  like  a  statue  ;  but  his 
long  arms  grabbed  the  fish  without  ceasing. 

"  Down  below,  the  rasping  sound  of  rough  salt  rubbed  on 
rough  flesh  sounded  like  the  whirring  of  a  grindstone  —  a 
steady  undertone  to  the  '  click-nick '  of  the  knives  in  the 
pen  ;  the  wrench  and  schloop  of  torn  heads,  dropped  liver, 
and  flying  offal  ;  the  '  caraah'  of  Uncle  Salters's  knife 
scooping  away  backbones  ;  and  the  flap  of  wet,  opened 
bodies  falling  into  the  tub. 

"  At  the  end  of  an  hour  Harvey  would  have  given  the 
world  to  rest  ;  for  fresh,  wet  cod  weigh  more  than  you 
would  think,  and  his  back  ached  with  the  steady  pitching. 
But  he  felt  for  the  first  time  in  his  life  that  he  was  one  of 
a  working  gang  of  men,  took  pride  in  the  thought,  and 
held  on  sullenly. 

" '  Knife  oh  ! '  shouted  Uncle  Salters,  at  last.  Penn 
doubled  up,  gasping  among  the  fish  ;  Manuel  bowed  back 
and  forth  to  supple  himself ;  and  Long  Jack  leaned  over 
the  bulwarks. 

"  After  a  few  moments'  rest  while  the  knives  were  being 
changed : — 

"  '  Hi  ! '  With  a  yell  from  Emanuel  the  work  began  again, 
and  never  stopped  till  the  pen  was  empty.  The  instant  the 
last  fish  was  down,  Disko  Troop  rolled  aft  to  the  cabin 


COD-FISHERIES 


31 


with  his  brother  ;  Manuel  and  Long  Jack  went  forward  ; 
Tom  Piatt  only  waited  long  enough  to  slide  home  the 
hatch  ere  he  too  disappeared.  In  half  a  minute  Harvey 
heard  deep  snores  in  the  cabin,  and  he  was  staring  blankly 
at  Dan  and  Penn." 

Sometimes,  instead  of  the  men  going  out  in  their  dories 
to  fish  separately  with  hook  and  line,  a  long  line  is  laid 


Fig.  15. 
Cod  fishing  by  means  of  a  trawl. 

out  across  the  water,  to  which  short  lines  with  baited  hooks 
are  fastened  every  few  feet.  This  is  called  long-line  fish- 
ing or  trawling.  Such  a  trawling  line  with  shorter  lines 
attached  is  packed  carefully  in  a  tub  and  lowered  into  a 
dory  which  anchors  one  end  of  it  to  a  buoy  near  the 
schooner.  As  the  dory  is  moved  out  by  the  oarsman  away 
from  the  schooner,  another  fisherman  baits  the  hooks  and 
drops  them  into  the  water.  In  this  way  two  or  three  tubs 
full  of  line  are  stretched  out  in  one  course,  perhaps  a  mile 
in  length.  The  farther  end  is  also  anchored,  and  corks  at 
intervals  support  the  main  line. 


32  TYPE  STUDIES 

Gathering  the  fish  from  the  trawling  line  is  difficult  and 
dangerous  in  a  rough  sea.  Kipling  gives  the  following  : 
''  Underrunning  a  trawl  means  pulling  it  in  one  side  of  the 
dory,  picking  off  the  fish,  rebaiting  the  hooks,  and  passing 
them  back  to  the  sea  again — something  like  pinning  and 
unpinning  linen  on  a  wash  line.  It  is  a  lengthy  business 
and  rather  dangerous,  for  the  long,  sagging  line  may  twitch 
a  boat  under  in  a  flash. 

"  The  fish  bit  at  the  newly  baited  hooks  from  which 
their  brethren  had  just  been  taken,  and  Tom  Piatt  and 
Long  Jack  moved  methodically  up  and  down  the  length 
of  the  trawl,  the  boat's  nose  surging  under  the  wet 
line  of  hooks,  stripping  the  sea-cucumbers  that  they 
called  pumpkins,  slatting  off  the  fresh-caught  cod  against 
the  gunwale,  rebaiting  and  loading  Manuel's  dory  till 
dusk." 

Sometimes  when  the  cod  are  thick  and  hungry,  the  men 
fish  from  the  deck  of  the  schooner. 

Dangers  ever  beset  the  men  whether  on  the  deck  of  the 
schooner  or  in  their  dories.  The  heavy  fogs  which  wrap 
the  Banks  in  gloom  are  a  sure  cause  of  trouble.  The  fog 
often  settles  down  suddenly  and  the  dories  are  quickly 
shut  out  from  the  sight  of  the  schooner  and  must  go 
by  sound  of  bell  or  horn  or  the  instinct  of  the  fisher- 
man. Sometimes  the  men  in  the  dories  are  lost  and  drift 
about  for  days,  to  starve  or  freeze  or  go  down  in  stormy 
weather. 

The  path  of  the  ocean  steamers  from  New  York  to  Eng- 
land is  directly  across  these  foggy  Banks  and  such  a  swift 
moving  steamship,  suddenly  looming  up  out  of  the  dense 
fog,  sometimes  crushes  into  a  schooner,  splits  it  in  two,  and 
sends  its  crew  to  the  bottom.     Or,  it  may  be,  an  iceberg. 


COB-FISIIElilES  33 

floating  down  from  the  north,  invades  the  foggy  Banks  and 
threatens  destruction  to  the  schooners. 

At  times  the  fishing  vessels  collect  in  large  numbers  at 
some  favorable  fishing  ground  and  anchor  near  together. 
In  case  a  storm  comes  up  and  an  anchor  gives  way,  the 
schooner  is  driven  recklessly  among  the  other  boats  and 
a  collision  may  sink  both  vessels  and  their  crews. 

Professor  Tarr  says  in  "The  Fishing  Industry  of 
New  England  "  :  "  In  order  to  set  the  trawl,  and  to  re- 
move the  fish  from  it  at  intervals,  men  must  leave  the 
vessel  in  their  dories.  If  a  snow  squall  arises  or  a  fog 
sets  in  while  the  men  are  out,  they  are  apt  to  be  sepa- 
rated from  their  schooner  and,  drifting  about,  become 
hopelessly  lost  in  the  open  ocean.  Every  year  lives 
are  lost  in  this  manner  ;  and  very  often  men  are  adrift 
for  days  before  being  picked  up,  perhaps  crazed  with 
thirst  or  almost  starved  and  frequently  badly  frozen. 

"  In  some  years  over  two  hundred  men  are  lost  from 
the  port  of  Gloucester,  and  every  year  there  are  scores 
of  lives  sacrificed.  The  result  is  that  the  percentage  of 
widows  and  orphans  in  Gloucester  is  unduly  large  ;  yet 
the  freedom,  independence,  and  excitement  of  the  life, 
added  to  the  possibility  of  profit,  induce  men  to  engage 
in  the  industry.  But  the  wives  and  mothers  ashore, 
lacking  the  excitement,  wait,  watch,  and  pray,  spending 
sleepless  nights  listening  to  the  roar  of  the  storm  waves 
with  fear  and  trembling,  for  they  know  that  this  very 
storm  may  rob  them  of  their  dear  ones.  Then,  when  it 
is  time  for  the  return,  they  watch  and  listen  ;  and,  alas, 
in  far  too  many  cases  anxiety  gives  place  to  fear,  then 
to  dread  uncertainty,  and  finally  to  hopeless  certainty 
that  the  vessel  will  never  again  enter  port,  and  that  no 


34  TYPE  STUDIES 

one  will  ever  know  more  than  that  it  lies  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sea." 

Gloucester  has  grown  in  the  last  few  years  to  be  the 
most  important  centre  of  the  fishing  industry  in  New 
England.  Formerly  it  was  less  important  than  Province- 
town  on  Cape  Cod  or  Annisquam  near  by.  But  as 
larger  boats  and  schooners  came  into  use  on  the  Banks, 
Gloucester  was  found  to  have  a  deeper  harbor  and  en- 
trance, so  that  the  business  shifted  to  this  place.  Glouces- 
ter has  also  the  advantage  of  extending  far  out  into 
the  sea  on  the  peninsula  of  which  Cape  Ann  is  the 
point,  and  is  thus  nearer  to  the  fishing  grounds.  Again, 
Boston,  the  great  centre  of  trade,  is  not  far  away,  and 
both  fresh  and  salt  fish  are  sent  in  large  quantities  to 
Boston,  and  from  there  distributed  over  the  country. 
Boston  itself  is  also  a  very  important  harbor  for  fish- 
ing schooners,  and  especially  for  the  trade  in  fresh  fish. 
Fishing  schooners  coming  into  Gloucester  often  have 
their  halibut  and  other  fresh  fish  packed  in  the  hold 
on  ice  and  thus  kept  fresh  for  weeks  or  months  till  it 
is  shipped  in  refrigerator  cars  to  New  York  and  other 
cities. 

Most  of  the  cod,  salted  down  in  the  holds,  is  brought 
into  Gloucester  in  schooner  loads.  "Arriving  in  port 
the  cargo  is  transferred  from  the  ship  to  the  wharf, 
where  the  fish  are  placed  in  large  hogsheads,  called 
butts.  There  they  are  left  soaking  in  the  brine  until 
the  time  comes  for  drying  them.  For  that  purpose  the 
fish  are  spread  upon  the  flakes,  which  consist  of  frames 
two  or  three  feet  above  the  level  of  the  wharf,  upon 
which  are  many  crosspieces  arranged  much  as  laths 
are  in  a  house.     This  permits  the  air  to  reach  the  un- 

\ 


COD-FISHERIES  '  35 

der  as  well  as  the  upper  side  of  the  fish.  After  being 
thoroughly  dried,  many  of  the  fish  are  sent  away  whole 
to  be  sold  as  salted  cod,  and  these  fish  find  their  way 
all  over  the  country.  Of  late,  however,  an  important 
industry  of  preparing  the  cod  more  carefully  for  mar- 
ket has  sprung  up.  For  this  purpose  the  skin  and 
bones  are  carefully  removed,  and  the  fish  is  torn  into 
shreds  and  packed  in  boxes  as  boneless  or  shredded 
cod." 

As  in  the  case  of  other  large  industries  centred  in 
one  place,  the  waste  products,  such  as  skins,  bones,  and 
heads,  have  found  important  uses.  For  the  manufac- 
ture of  glue  and  fertilizer  large  factories  have  been 
built  at  Gloucester,  where  these  disagreeable  products 
are  converted  into  valuable  articles  of  commerce  and 
the  waters  of  the  harbor  saved  from  pollution. 

It  is  natural  also  that  other  industries  for  the  manu- 
facture of  anchors,  cordage,  fish  nets,  and  ship  supplies 
should  grow  up  in  Gloucester.  In  this  way  Gloucester 
has  grown  to  be  the  great  centre  for  the  fisheries  and 
other  closely  related  trades.  The  harbor  of  Gloucester, 
with  its  schooners,  docks,  and  drying  wharves,  is  one  of 
the  places  of  lively  interest  to  the  visitor.  Four  hun- 
dred fishing  schooners  go  out  from  this  port  and  the 
fish  brought  in  are  scattered  to  almost  every  grocery 
store  in  the  United  States.  Most  of  the  fish  brought 
in  is  consumed  in  our  own  country.  As  Lowell  is  fa- 
mous for  cotton  manufacture  and  Pittsburg  for  iron, 
Gloucester,  a  city  of  twenty-eight  thousand  people, 
stands  foremost    in  the  fish  industry. 

When  we  consider  the  risks,  dangers,  and  hardships 
connected  both  with  the  shore-line  and    outlying  banks 


36  TYPE  STUDIES 

tishing,  it  is  plain  that  a  hardy  and  independent  race 
of  men  is  needed  for  such  a  business.  From  the  earli- 
est times  the  fishermen  of  the  New  England  coast  have 
been  a  bold  and  fearless  set  of  men,  ready  to  face  dan- 
ger, hardship,  and  the  severest  strain  of  toil.  Through 
long  and  hard  experience  they  became  skilful  seamen 
and  shipmasters.  In  time  of  war  the  United  States  has 
usually  found  among  these  fishermen  its  best  men  for 
the  fleet.  During  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  still 
more  during  the  War  of  1812,  these  men  proved  them- 
selves heroes  in  many  waters.  Later,  during  the  Civil 
War,  they  were  found  equally  serviceable  to  their 
count  r}^ 

The  results  of  the  Spanish- American  War,  in  which 
they  also  served,  were  curiously  advantageous  to  the  fish- 
ing business.  Porto  Rico  and  Cuba,  as  a  result  of  this 
war,  have  been  opened  to  the  trade  in  fish  from  the  New 
England  coast.  This  is  important  because  Catholic  coun- 
tries use  a  large  quantity  of  fish,  and  the  products  of  the 
cold  north  are  thus  made  to  serve  the  needs  of  the  tropical 
south. 

The  sea  captains  or  skippers  and  many  of  the  sailors 
who  go  out  from  Gloucester  are  men  with  families  who 
own  their  own  comfortable  homes.  Others  are  single  men, 
who  are  apt  to  spend  their  money  recklessly  when  they 
come  into  port. 

On  account  of  the  greater  concentration  of  the  fish- 
ing business  in  two  or  three  cities,  many  of  the  old 
wharves  and  fishing  towns  have  been  largely  abandoned 
and  are  falling  into  decay.  Instead  of  fishing  villages, 
they  have  become  largely  summer  resorts  for  seaside 
visitors. 


COB-FISHERIES  37 

Farther  south  along  the  coast  of  the  United  States, 
especially  in  Long  Island  Sound  and  Chesapeake  Bay,  the 
oyster  fisheries  are  extremely  important  and  furnish  em- 
ployment to  thousands  of  men.  Even  as  far  south  as  the 
coast  of  Florida,  oyster  fisheries  are  important  and  supply 
a  large  amount  of  food  product. 

On  the  northwestern  coast  of  the  United  States,  British 
Columbia,  and  Alaska  very  extensive  salmon  fisheries  have 
developed,  in  particular  along  the  Columbia  River.  The 
canned  salmon,  and  even  fresh  salmon,  sent  in  refrigerator 
cars  to  the  east,  have  competed  in  the  market  with  the 
products  of  the  New  England  fisheries ;  but  the  distance 
is  so  great  that  New  England  has  held  the  chief  place  in 
the  fish  market. 

Along  the  Great  Lakes  are  also  extensive  fisheries  in 
lake-trout  or  whitefish  and  other  varieties,  which  are 
among  the  best  of  food  fishes.  The  smaller  lakes  and 
rivers  of  the  United  States  are  also  locally  important  as 
sources  of  the  food  fishes. 

The  government  of  the  United  States  has  an  important 
department  called  the  Fisheries  Commission,  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  study  the  various  fresh  and  salt  water  fishing 
grounds  of  the  United  States.  It  is  their  work  also  in 
every  way  possible  to  protect  and  extend  the  fishing  indus- 
tries, to  establish  fish-hatcheries,  and  to  distribute  young 
fish  in  waters  where  they  may  increase  in  numbers.  Thus 
attempts  are  being  made  to  restore  the  coast-line  fisheries 
along  the  coast  of  New  England  by  planting  young  fish  in 
the  shore  waters. 

As  already  indicated,  the  great  fishing  grounds  along 
the  Banks  of  Newfoundland  are  resorted  to  by  fishing 
schooners   of   all   nations.     French  vessels   have    always 


38  TYPE  STUDIES 

been  numerous  along  these  shores,  and  the  Canadian  fish- 
eries are  very  important. 

In  later  studies,  the  great  fishing  grounds  of  the  North 
Sea  and  all  around  the  coasts  of  England  and  Ireland  may 
be  studied  and  brought  into  connection  and  comparison 
with  the  fisheries  of  our  own  country. 


NIAGARA  FALLS  AND  THE  COMMERCE  OF 
THE  GREAT  LAKES 

Niagara  Falls  lies  midway  between  Lake  Ontario 
and  Lake  Erie.  Lake  Erie  is  nearly  300  feet  higher 
above  the  sea-level  than  Lake  Ontario.  About  six  miles 
south  of  Lake  Ontario  the   level   plateau  in  whose  basin 


Fig.  17. 

Bird's-eye  view  of  the  Niagara  River.    Contrast  the  broad,  shallow  upper 
valley  with  the  narrow,  deep  gorge  below  the  falls. 

Lake  Erie  lies  drops  down  300  feet  to  the  plain  which 
borders  Lake  Ontario.  The  Niagara  River,  in  making  its 
way  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontario,  must  leap  over  this 
bluff  or  escarpment.  At  the  present  time  the  falls  are 
about  six  miles  back  from  the  edge  of  the  escarpment.    A 

39 


40 


TYPE  STUDIES 


stratum  of  limestone  rocks  140  feet  thick  extends  from 
the  edge  of  this  escarpment  southward  and,  dipping 
gradually,  passes  under  Lake  Erie.  The  Niagara  River, 
as  it  flows  ndftli ward,  drops  over  this  ledge  of  limestone 
rocks   at   the  present   site    of   the   falls.     It  is  160  feet 

from  the  edge  of  the 
cataract  to  the  level 
of  the  river  below. 
The  remainder  of  the 
300  feet  of  descent 
is  made  by  the  rapids 
above  and  below  the 
falls  and  by  the 
descent  of  the  river. 
The  falls  on  the 
American  side  are 
small  and,  in  fact, 
constitute  a  part  of 
the  east  bank  of  the 
river.  The  great 
Horseshoe  Falls, 
which  lie  to  the  west 
of  Goat  Island,  con- 
stitute the  main  part 
of  the  falls.  Here 
the  enormous  body 
of  water  tumbles  into 
a  great  chasm  from  three  sides,  and  it  is  here  that  the 
main  action  of  the  water  in  grinding  out  the  rocks  takes 
place.  Above  the  falls  is  a  great  series  of  limestone  ledges, 
over  which  the  broad  river  plunges,  forming  a  wilderness 
of  waters,  as   seen  from  the  Three  Sisters  Islands,  very 


Fig.  18. 
A  view  of  Niagara  Falls. 


NIAGARA  FALLS  41 

grand  and  impressive.  In  fact,  the  view  up  the  river  from 
the  Three  Sisters  is  one  of  the  grandest  scenes  in  nature. 
The  Horseshoe  Falls  can  be  best  appreciated  from  the  Maid 
of  the  Mist  as  it  sails  up  under  the  waters  from  below. 

Below  the  falls  is  the  deep,  narrow  gorge,  with  its  pre- 
cipitous walls  nearly  300  feet  high,  through  the  narrow 
bottom  of  which  gushes  the  swift  river.  How  was  this 
gorge  formed  ?  It  extends  about  six  miles  to  the  edge 
of  the  escarpment.  As  the  water  tumbles  over  the  edge^ 
of  the  falls,  it  decends  into  the  river  200  feet  deep.  The 
underlying  rocks  beneath  the  limestone  ledge,  already  de- 
scribed, are  soft  shales  and  sandstone.  The  rushing  waters 
at  the  foot  of  the  falls  gradually  wash  out  great  caves  in  this 
softer  rock,  and  the  superincumbent  mass  of  projecting 
limestone  breaks  off  in  great  chunks  and  tumbles  into  the 
bottom  of  the  river.  In  the  centre  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls, 
where  the  water  from  three  sides  plunges  into  the  deep 
caldron,  the  action  of  the  water  is  so  powerful  as  to  grind 
up  these  loose  rocks  at  the  bottom  and  sweep  the  sand  down 
the  river.  On  the  edges  of  the  gorge,  where  the  action 
of  the  water  is  less  powerful,  the  broken  rocks  are  not 
ground  up  and  form  a  sloping  side  or  talus  which  is  found 
on  both  sides  of  the  gorge  throughout  its  course.  In  this 
way  it  has  been  found  by  close  measurements  that  the  falls 
are  yearly  receding  toward  the  south,  in  the  middle  of  the 
Horseshoe  Falls  at  the  rate  of  from  four  to  six  feet  a  year. 
During  the  present  century  the  measurements  have  been 
quite  accurate,  so  that  the  rate  of  recession  is  somewhat 
definitely  known.  With  this  as  a  basis  efforts  have  been 
made  to  reckon  the  number  of  years  necessary  for  the  for- 
mation of  the  gorge,  but  the  estimates  have  varied  from 
six  thousand  to  thirty  thousand  years. 


42 


TYPE  STUDIES 


The  gorge  between  the  falls  and  the  escarpment  is  a 
most  interesting  scenic  object.  An  electric  railway  descends 
along  the  eastern  edge  ot  the  gorge  and,  passing  close  by 
the  whirlpool  rapids,  proceeds  along  the  foot  of  the  cliffs 
till  it  reaches  Lewiston  at  the  outlet  of  the  gorge. 
Here  the  Niagara  River  widens  into  a  splendid  stream,  deep 
and  broad,  as  it  courses  toward  Lake  Ontario.  Another 
electric  railway  climbs   the  escarpment  on  the  Canadian 


Fig.  19. 

Elevators  on  the  water  front  of  Buffalo.    (Copyrighted  by  G.  P.  Hall 
&  Son,  N.Y.,  1899.) 

side,  and  on  its  return  to  the  falls  gives  excellent  views  of 
the  river  and  gorge  from  above. 

If  heavily  laden  grain  ships  start  from  Chicago  or 
Duluth,  how  far  can  they  proceed  down  the  lakes  before 
stopping  to  unload  ?  If  it  were  not  for  Niagara  Falls, 
they  would  not  stop  at  Buffalo,  but  pass  on  to  Lake 
Ontario,  and  perhaps  down  the  St.  Lawrence  on  their 
way  to  Europe  or  New  York.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  all  the 
great  lake  vessels  moving  eastward  are  compelled  to  un- 


NIAGARA  FALLS 


43 


load  their  cargoes  at  Buffalo.  If  it  were  not  for  Niagara 
Falls,  would  there  be  any  need  of  an  Erie  Canal  ?  or  a 
Welland  Canal?  Would  there  be  any  great  city  at 
Buffalo?  If  great  vessels  could  pass  freely  from  Lake 
Erie  to  Lake  Ontario,  what  part  of  the  Erie  Canal  would 
still  be  serviceable  ?  There  is  at  present  a  branch  of  the 
canal  from  Oswego  to  the  main  canal  and  Albany.  In 
this  case  what  sort  of  a  city  would  Oswego  be  ?  Perhaps 
the  main  body 
of  commerce 
would  go  down 
the  St.  Law- 
rence, but  there 
are  difficulties 
in  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  such 
as  the  rapids, 
which  have  made 
canals  neces- 
sary, the  short 
season  of  navi- 
gation    at     the 

mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  so  far  to  the  north,  and  the 
fact  that  all  this  commerce  must  pass  through  a  foreign 
country.  The  probability  is,  therefore,  that  the  canal,  in 
any  case,  would  extend  from  Oswego  to  Albany.  So  far 
as  commerce  is  concerned,  Niagara  Falls  is  an  enormous 
obstruction,  making  necessary  the  expenditure  of  many 
millions  of  dollars  on  canals  and  railways.  Moreover,  the 
traffic  route  from  Chicago,  Duluth,  and  the  lake  cities  is 
by  many  times  the  most  important  traffic  route  in  America, 


Fig.  20. 

Some  of  the  raw  materials  which  are  readily  brought 
to  Buffalo  by  boat. 


44 


TYPE  STUDIES 


and  Niagara  lies  at  its  centre,  obstructing  all  free  commer- 
cial intercourse.  The  vast  importance  of  this  trade  route 
may  be  seen  in  the  quantity  of  great  staple  products  like 
corn,  wheat,  live  stock,  and  packed  meats  which  are 
shipped  from  Chicago  and  other  lake  cities  to  Buffalo, 
New  York,  and  Europe.  The  greatest  railroad  trunk  lines 


Fig.  21. 

A  section  to  show  how  the  Niagara  power  is  used.  The  wheels  are  placed  at 
the  base  of  the  tube  on  the  left-hand  side,  and  the  waste  water  then  runs 
down  through  the  tunnel  and  back  into  the  river. 

follow  this  route,  such  as  the  Michigan  Central,  the  Nickel 
Plate,  and  others. 

On  the  other  hand,  do  the  great  falls  perform  any  ser- 
vice to  mankind  to  compensate  for  this  inconvenience  and 
difficulty  ?  There  is  immense  water-power  at  the  falls, 
and  a  group  of  mills  on  the  east  side  for  many  years  has 
used  a  very  small  fraction  of  the  water  for  moving  mill- 


NIAGABA   FALLS  45 

wheels.  But  within  the  last  few  years  engineers  have 
constructed  great  water-wheels  near  the  falls  for  producing 
water-power  and  for  converting  this  power  into  electrical 
force.  This  result  has  been  accomplished  as  follows  :  On 
the  American  side  above  the  falls  and  a  few  hundred  feet 
from  the  shore  a  huge  shaft  or  well  was  sunk  to  a  depth 
of  about  160  feet.  Its  bottom  was  a  little  above  the  level 
of  the  river  at  the  foot  of  the  falls  and  from  the  bottom  of 
the  shaft  a  tunnel  was  run  connecting  it  with  the  gorge  at 
the  level  of  the  river  below.  Then  a  canal  was  opened 
from  the  river  above  the  falls  to  the  top  of  the  shaft,  and 
the  water  could  be  run  from  the  river  and  dropped  into 
the  top  of  the  deep  shaft  or  well.  Near  the  bottom  of  the 
shaft  was  built  a  series  of  great  turbine  wheels  upon  which 
the  water  from  above  could  be  dropped  through  large  iron 
pipes.  Shafting  connected  these  turbine  wheels  with  the 
power-house  above  at  the  top  of  the  well  where  the  water- 
power  is  converted  into  electrical  force.  It  is  being  utilized 
by  mills  and  factories  and  street-car  lines  within  a  radius 
of  many  miles  from  the  falls.  So  great  is  the  amount  of 
power  which  can  be  generated  at  the  falls  and  put  to  use 
in  factories  and  shops,  that  it  is  expected  that  the  country 
about  Niagara  Falls  will  become,  in  time,  the  greatest 
manufacturing  centre  in  the  world.  Another  reason  for 
these  hopes  is  the  fact  that  raw  products  of  many  kinds 
can  be  shipped  to  this  point  at  little  expense. 

In  the  earl}^  history  of  explorations  we  find  that  Hen- 
nepin and  La  Salle,  in  trying  to  navigate  the  upper  lakes, 
met  their  greatest  difficulties  at  Niagara  Falls.  It  was 
necessary  to  carry  a  heavy  forge  and  tools  over  the  bluff 
and  along  the  river  to  a  point  six  or  seven  miles  above  the 
falls,  where,  in  the  rigors  of  a  severe  winter,  forest  trees 


46  TYPE  STUDIES 

were  cut  down  and  a  vessel  was  built  for  the  navigation 
of  the  upper  lakes.  It  was  called  the  G-riffin  and  was 
used  by  La  Salle  and  his  party  in  their  first  trip  to  Macki- 
naw and  Green  Bay.  The  Columbus  caravels,  which 
were  objects  of  such  interest  at  the  Columbian  Exposition, 
were  taken  up  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and  through  the 
Welland  Canal,  reaching  Chicago  by  the  way  of  the  lakes. 
Some  of  the  smaller  whaleback  steamers  have  made  the 
trip  from  Duluth  through  the  locks  at  St.  Mary's  Canal, 
the  lakes,  and  the  Welland  Canal,  down  the  St.  Lawrence 
to  Liverpool. 

Geologists  have  been  anxious  to  determine  the  number 
of  centuries  since  the  Niagara  River  began  to  cut  its  gorge. 
In  this  way  they  would  be  able  to  determine  the  length  of 
time  since  the  glacial  period  or  the  ice  age  in  North  Amer- 
ica. The  great  glacial  sheet  gliding  down  from  the  north 
at  one  time  filled  Lake  Ontario  so  that  the  Niagara  River 
could  find  no  outlet  into  Lake  Ontario.  At  that  time  the 
upper  lakes  must  have  found  an  outlet  in  some  other  direc- 
tion. The  old  channel  by  which  Lake  Michigan  sent  its 
waters  into  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi  has  been  found. 
As  the  ice  receded  toward  the  north,  and  the  waters  from 
Lake  Erie  were  first  sent  via  Niagara  over  the  escarpment 
toward  Lake  Ontario,  the  outlet  of  the  St.  Lawrence  was 
still  obstructed  by  ice.  In  those  days  the  outlet  to  Lake 
Ontario  was  by  way  of  the  Mohawk  and  Hudson,  and  this 
old  channel  has  also  been  located.  If  this  were  still  true, 
it  would  remove  some  of  the  difficulties  of  our  navigation. 

If  we  compare  the  falls  of  Niagara,  its  gorge  and  rapids, 
with  the  falls  of  St.  Anthony  at  Minneapolis,  we  shall  find 
.that  a  similar  gorge  extends  from  Minneapolis  down 
the  Mississippi  about  five  miles  to  its  junction  with  the 


NIAGARA   FALLS  47 

Minnesota.  But  this  gorge  is  only  one-third  as  deep, 
though  about  the  same  width,  as  the  Niagara  gorge.  An 
examination  of  the  rock  strata  at  St.  Anthony's  Falls  will 
reveal  also  a  similar  series  of  rocks,  hard  limestone  above 
and  softer  rock  beneath,  and  a  similar  recession  of  the 
falls.  At  Minneapolis,  however,  great  flour  mills  worth 
millions  of  dollars  have  been  established  at  the  western 
edge  of  the  falls,  and  the  recession  of  the  falls  would  ren- 
der them  useless.  To  prevent  this  a  heavy  framework  of 
wooden  chutes  has  been  built  and  heavily  buttressed,  so  as 
to  completely  cover  the  rocks  at  the  falls  and  prevent 
them  from  wearing  away,  thus  making  the  falls  station- 
ary. But  the  old  scenic  beauty  has  been  destroyed.  At 
Rochester,  New  York,  where  the  Genessee  River  plunges 
over  the  escarpment  toward  Lake  Ontario,  a  series  of  falls 
and  gorges  is  found  which  is  explained  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  Niagara  Falls.  It  will  be  of  interest  to  compare 
other  falls  in  North  America,  like  those  of  the  upper  Mis- 
souri, Yellowstone  Falls  in  the  park,  and  the  falls  of  the 
Columbia,  with  those  of  Niagara,  to  see  if  similar  causes 
are  operative.  .  Later  in  the  study  of  Europe,  Africa,  and 
other  lands,  we  may  compare  the  falls  of  the  Rhine,  of  the 
Nile,  the  Zambezi,  and  the  Congo  with  those  of  Niagara, 
in  their  effect  upon  navigation  and  traffic. 


Fig.  22. 


THE    JAMES    RIVER 


The  James  River,  rising  in  the  high  crests  of  the  Alle- 
ghany Mountains,  drains  a  part  of  the  Great  Valley  of 

48 


THE  JAMES  RIVER  49 

Virginia,  and  then  breaking  through  the  Blue  Ridge  at 
Balcony  Falls  flows  across  the  uplands  between  the 
mountains  and  the  border  of  the  lowlands.  Then,  de- 
scending in  rapids  across  the  granite  escarpment  at 
Richmond,  it  flows  through  the  tide- water  lowlands, 
more  than  a  hundred  miles,  to  the  southern  end  of 
Chesapeake  Bay.  Here,  joining  its  waters  with  those  of 
the  broad  bay,  it  does  not  reach  the  ocean  till  it  passes 
between  the  opposite  capes  of  Charles  and  Henry. 

In  passing  from  the  highest  ridges  of  Great  North 
Mountain  on  the  west,  covered  with  heavy  forests,  till 
it  reaches  the  tidal  waters  which  mingle  with  the  ocean, 
the  James  River  travels  through  a  widely  diversified 
country,  —  high  mountains,  upland  valleys,  mountain 
gorges,  pine-clad  foot-hills,  rolling  plateaus,  rocky  ledges, 
sandy  barriers,  and  rich  lowland  flats  and  marshes. 

Just  at  the  mouth  of  the  James,  one  who  is  sailing 
up  the  river  meets  a  number  of  interesting  and  well- 
remembered  places.  Old  Point  Comfort  with  its  huge 
hotels.  Fortress  Monroe,  Newport  News  on  the  north 
side  of  the  broad  entrance,  and  Portsmouth  and  Norfolk 
on  the  south  side,  and  lying  between  the  two  are  the 
wide-stretching  waters  of  Hampton  Roads,  which  has 
been  called  the  finest  landlocked  harbor  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  United  States.  .The  harbor  of  Norfolk  ad- 
mits large  ocean-going  steamers,  and  it  is  the  terminus  of 
railroad  lines  from  the  west  and  south,  which  has  made  it 
a  great  shipping  point  for  coal,  cotton,  lumber,  tobacco, 
vegetables,  and  other  products.  Norfolk  is  also  connected 
by  navigable  waters  with  Richmond,  with  Baltimore, 
Washington,  and  other  cities  on  the  Chesapeake,  by  canal 
through  the  Great  Dismal  Swamp  southward  to   Pamlico 


50  TYPE  STUDIES 

and  Albemarle  sounds,  and  with  all  the  cities  of  the  At- 
lantic coast  and  of  Europe  by  the  ocean. 

At  Newport  News  one  may  see  one  of  the  great  ship- 
yards for  the  building  of  ocean  steamers  and  war  vessels, 
supplied  also  with  dry  docks  for  the  overhauling  of  great 
ships. 

Near  Fortress  Monroe  is  the  famous  Negro  and  Indian 
School  of  Hampton,  founded  and  long  directed  by  General 
Armstrong. 

In  the  waters  of  Hampton  Roads  in  1862  the  little  Mon- 
itor gave  battle  to  the  iron-clad  battle  ship  Merrimac  and 
saved  the  Union  from  what  seemed  a  great  danger.  On  the 
other  side  of  the  narrow  peninsula  which  separates  the 
James  and  the  York  rivers  is  Yorktown,  where  was  fought 
the  last  great  battle  of  the  Revolution. 

The  mouth  of  the  James,  with  its  shallows  and  bays, 
like  the  other  broad  river  mouths  of  the  Chesapeake, 
abounds  in  fish  and  oysters.  This  is  the  favorite  region 
for  the  best  oyster  farms,  and  these  cities  are  centres  for 
collecting  and  shipping  fish  and  oysters. 

Passing  up  the  James  River,  a  few  miles  of  sailing 
brings  us  to  the  site  of  Jamestown,  where  the  early  colo- 
nists struggled  for  the  first  permanent  foothold  in  the 
United  States,  and  where  John  Smith  showed  himself  so 
daring  and  prudent  in  providing  for  the  settlers;  and  just 
to  the  north  of  this  deserted  place  is  Williamsburg,  famous 
during  colonial  days  as  the  capital  of  Virginia. 

The  low,  rich  land  on  these  peninsulas  at  the  mouth  of 
the  James  and  other  rivers  in  Virginia  has  become  in  later 
years  the  great  region  of  truck  farming,  where  so  many 
vegetables  and  small  fruits  are  raised  for  the  northern 
market,  especially  for  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  other 


THE  JAMES  BIVER 


51 


cities  on  or  near  the  coast.  Potatoes,  radishes,  onions, 
lettuce,  celery,  sweet  potatoes,  strawberries,  and  melons 
are  raised  in  large  quantities  and  shipped  to  the  north. 
The  alluvial  soils  brought  down  by  the  rivers  are  very 
rich  along  these  coasts. 

The  climate  of  the  coast  region  is  mild  and  moist  be- 
cause of  nearness  to  the  ocean,  while  the  Alleghany  Moun- 


FiG.  24. 

A  view  in  the  Dismal  Swamp.    The  cypress  knees  and  roots  are  seen  rising 
to  a  level  above  the  reach  of  high  water. 

tains  shut  out  the  cold  northwest  winds.  Southward  also 
on  the  lowlands  of  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia  truck  farm- 
ing has  greatly  extended,  and  along  the  Florida  coast,  even 
in  winter' time,  lettuce,  onions,  tomatoes,  celery,  and  fruits 
are  shipped  northward  in  great  abundance.  Not  only 
along  the  low  coast  lands  of  Virginia,  therefore,  but  all 


52 


TYPE  STUDIES 


along  the  Atlantic 
coast  from  New 
Jersey  to  the 
southern  coast  of 
Florida  truck 
farming  and  small 
fruit  growing  have 
gained  great  im- 
portance. 

Much  of  this 
lowland  is  sandy 
and  barren  and  is 
unproductive  ex- 
cept for  forests  of 
pine  and  oak.  The 
region  of  the  Great 
Dismal  Swamp 
south  of  Norfolk 
is  rich  in  cypress, 
pine,  and  cedar. 
Since  the  days  of 
John  Smith  these 
pine  woods  have 
been  used  to  pro- 
duce tar  and  tur- 
pentine. From 
Virginia  south- 
ward through  the 
Carolinas,  Georgia, 
and  the  far  south  into  Florida,  the  low,  sandy  lands  are 
rich  in  turpentine  woods,  and  the  coast  cities  like  Norfolk, 
Charleston,  Savannah,  and  Jacksonville  are  ports  for  its 
shipment. 


E^1LX1S>4"  S 

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)  Philadelphia  ^^T 

„  .  .  V.  , 

\      J 

^^'\f^ 

r 

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WashiiigtoV€lj> 

more 

i((j3n^ /• 

&A 

Ll 

4^S\_     \  "ji 

(                   S       S\ 

3 
\ 

St   \« 

Y 

jffS 

^ 

Nor 

Li 

\( 

^ 

-.  s 

i  " 

-    -    ■    -^    -    -    -    -^:^^      .              II 

Fig.  25. 

Map  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  to  show  (by  heavy  line)  the 
way  in  which  the  various  rivers  would  unite  into 
a  single  trunk  stream  if  the  land  were  elevated. 


THE  JAMES   RIVER  53 

The  James  River  below  Richmond  is  a  tidal  river; 
like  the  Hudson,  it  is  a  drowned  valley.  In  fact,  the 
whole  Chesapeake  Bay,  with  its  broad  estuaries  of 
the  Potomac,  James,  etc.,  was  once  above  sea-level  and 
the  Susquehanna  River  flowed  down  past  Cape  Charles 
and  Cape  Henry  and  far  beyond.  The  settling  of  these 
river  valleys  below  the  sea-level  has  admitted  the  ocean 


Fig.  26. 
James  River  Falls,  showing  the  ancient  rocks. 

and  formed  those  broad  bays  and  estuaries  which  have  so 
many  excellent  harbors,  and  have  produced  such  fine 
oyster  beds  and  fishing  grounds. 

Vessels  requiring  fourteen  feet  of  water  can  sail  up  the 
James  River  as  far  as  Richmond,  117  miles,  where  the 
river  tumbles  down  over  a  ridge  of  granite  rocks,  100 
feet  of  fall  in  about  six  miles.  This  rocky  ridge  is 
the  boundary  line  between  the  lowlands  of  the  tide-water 
region  of  Virginia  and  the  more  hilly  uplands.  In  the 
early  history  of  Virginia  the  great  tobacco  plantations  were 


64 


TYPE  STUDIES 


in  this  lowland  belt,  and  as  there  were  no  railroads  and 
few  good  wagon  roads,  the  ships  from  the  ocean  came  up 
the  James  and  other  rivers  to  the  plantations  and  loaded 
from  the  private  wharves  of  the  planters.  In  those  days 
there  were  no  large  cities,  but  since  railroads  have  be- 
come the  chief  means  of  transportation,  cities  like  Nor- 


FiG.  27. 
The  Washington  Monument  and  the  State  Capitol. 

folk  and  Richmond  have  become  great  centres  of  popula- 
tion. 

The  city  of  Richmond  is  finely  located  on  a  group  of 
hills  at  the  upper  edge  of  the  tide-water  region.  This 
elevation  above  the  lowlands  gives  it  a  healthier  position, 
and  the  water-power  of  the  falls  naturally  is  used  for  flour- 
mills.     Up  to  the  time  of  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War, 


THE  JAMES  RIVER  55 

Richmond  was  the  great  centre  of  trade  for  a  large  part  of 
the  south.  Ocean-going  vessels  came  to  its  docks  in  large 
numbers.  It  was  one  of  the  chief  centres  for  the  tea 
trade  with  Asia.  The  tobacco  business,  both  for  manu- 
facturing and  shipment,  was  extensive,  and  the  agricul- 
tural products  of  both  the  uplands  and  lowlands  met  here. 
The  old  Capitol  building  on  the  top  of  one  of  the  hills  is 
still  the  most  interesting  and  commanding  object  in  the 
city.  Here  are  found  the  famous  statues  of  Washington 
and  Stonewall  Jackson. 

Soon  after  the  war  broke  out  Richmond  was  naturally 
made  the  capital  of  the  southern  Confederacy.  The  city 
was  surrounded  by  heavy  fortifications  and  earthworks. 
The  old  line  of  outer  earthworks  and  ditches  can  still  be 
seen  three  or  four  miles  out  from  the  city,  while  seven  or 
eight  miles  out  are  some  of  the  famous  battle-grounds, 
which  are  much  visited  by  tourists.  Libby  Prison  in 
Richmond  was  famous  during  the  war  as  the  place  where 
captured  Union  soldiers  were  kept.  As  the  city  of  Rich- 
mond was  evacuated  at  the  close  of  the  war  the  great 
warehouses  were  set  on  fire  and  the  city  much  damaged. 

Virginia  had  suffered  more  during  the  war  than  any 
other  state.  Great  armies  had  marched  back  and  forth, 
laying  waste  its  fields,  destroying  its  cities,  and  tearing 
up  its  railroads.  Many  great  battles  had  been  fought, 
and  it  was  at  Appomattox  Court-House  that  Lee  finally 
surrendered  to  Grant.  The  slaves  had  been  set  free,  so 
the  old  system  of  labor  was  destroyed. 

At  the  close  of  the  war,  therefore,  the  once  prosperous 
city  of  Richmond  was  in  ruins,  and  the  whole  state  was  in  a 
miserable  condition.  It  has  taken  many  years  to  build  up 
again  the  agriculture  and  commerce  of  the  state.     But  of 


56  TYPE  STUDIES 

late  years  Richmond  has  again  become  very  important  as 
a  raiboad  centre,  and  as  a  manufacturing  city  for  iron 
products  and  cotton  goods.  Tobacco  is  collected  and 
manufactured  extensively  and  the  agricultural  products  are 
collected  for  shipment.  It  has  now  a  population  of  eighty- 
five  thousand  and  is  much  more  important  than  it  was 
before  the  war. 

The  upland  region  of  Virginia,  drained  by  the  James 
River,  from  the  edge  of  the  tide-water  to  the  foot  of  the 
Blue  Ridge,  is  a  rolling  hilly  country  suitable  for  farming, 
where  grain,  corn,  tobacco,  and  fruits  are  raised  and  where 
cattle  and  other  live  stock  are  plentiful.  It  is  a  healthful 
and  productive  region  where  there  are  many  good  farms 
and  the  county  seats  are  important  towns  and  cities. 

That  part  of  this  upland  Avhich  lies  close  to  the  foot-hills 
is  called  the  Piedmont  plateau  and  has  a  number  of  fine 
cities  like  Lynchburg,  Danville,  and  Charlottesville. 
Charlottesville,  on  a  north  branch  of  the  James  River,  is  the 
seat  of  the  famous  University  of  Virginia,  founded  by  Jeffer- 
son. The  well- wooded  foot-hills,  with  evergreen  and  hard- 
wood trees,  lie  about  Charlottesville,  and  the  hazy  outlines 
of  the  Blue  Ridge  are  seen  toward  the  west.  About  three 
miles  from  Charlottesville,  on  the  rounded  summit  of  a  hill 
several  hui;idred  feet  above  the  town,  Jefferson  laid  out 
extensive  grounds  and  built  his  home,  Monticello.  A  fine 
old  road  winds  up  through  the  heavily  forested  hillside, 
past  the  monument  and  burial-place  of  Jefferson,  to  the 
grand  old  mansion  with  its  broad  porches.  A  few  old 
trees,  the  remnants  of  the  ancient  forests,  shade  the  lawn 
from  which  one  surveys  a  broad  sweep  of  valley  and  moun- 
tain. On  one  side,  just  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  lies 
Charlottesville  in  plain  sight,  and  just  beyond  it  the  domes 


THE  JAMES  RIVER 


57 


and  colonnades  of  the  University  buildings.  On  the  other 
side  and  just  in  front  lies  a  wide-spreading  valley  enclosed 
between  high  ridges,  and  within  this  stretch  of  vision  are 
the  old  homes  of  several  Presidents  of  the  United  States, 


Fig.  28. 
James  River  in  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains. 


as  Monroe  and  Madison,  and  the  birthplace  of  George 
Rogers  Clark  and  his  brother,  William  Clark,  famous  in 
the  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition  up  the  Missouri.  The 
historic  associations  of  the  region  about  Charlottesville 
make  it  of  o^reat  interest  to  all  Americans. 


58  TYPU  STUDIES 

To  the  southwest  of  Charlottesville  the  James  River 
breaks  through  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountain  range,  making  a 
famous  gorge,  and  through  this  gap  pass  two  of  the  rail- 
roads connecting  the  inner  valley  with  the  Piedmont  dis- 
trict just  east  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  On  a  railroad  map  we 
may  notice  that  there  are  several  of  these  gaps  in  the  Blue 
Ridge  where  the  railroads  pass  through. 

The  upper.  James  and  its  branches  drain  a  considerable 
part  of  the  Great  Valley  which  stretches  southward  from 
Pennsylvania  to  Tennessee,  and  lies  just  west  of  the  long 
line  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  In  Virginia,  the  central  part  of 
this  long  valley  is  drained  by  the  James,  the  northern  part 
by  the  Shenandoah,  and  the  southern  part  by  New  River 
which  flows  westward  into  West  Virginia. 

The  Great  Valley  of  Virginia,  shut  in  by  mountains  on 
both  sides,  is  a  fruitful  region  for  grains  and  pasture-lands. 
Parts  of  it  have  a  limestone  foundation  and  are  known  as 
blue-grass  belts.  It  is  a  hilly  region,  higher  and  cooler 
than  that  part  of  Virginia  east  of  the  mountains,  and  the 
farm  products  are  more  like  those  in  Ohio  and  Pennsyl- 
vania and  states  farther  north.  An  examination  of  the 
map  will  show  a  fine  series  of  small  cities  along  the  course 
of  the  Great  Valley  in  Virginia,  as  Winchester,  Staunton, 
and-Roanoke.  Washington  in  his  early  days  as  a  young 
surveyor  explored  a  part  of  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  In 
early  history  the  people  of  Virginia  passed  down  to 
the.  settlement  of  Tennessee  through  the  Great  Valley. 
During  the  Civil  War  several  of  the  marches  of  the  raid- 
ing armies  and  important  battles,  as  that  of  Winchester, 
were  witnessed  in  this  mountain  valley.  It  is  but  natural 
that  this  long  valley  should  be  the  route  followed  by  a 
railway,  and  on  a  map  we  may  easily  trace  such  a  railway 


THE  JAMES  RIVER 


59 


from    Harrisburg,    Pennsylvania,  to   Chattanooga,  Tenn- 
essee. 

That  part  of  the  valley  drained  by  the  James  River  is 
interesting   on  account  of  the   Natural  Bridge  and  other 


Fig.  29. 

Natural  Bridge,  Virginia.    This  bridge  is  a  part  of  an  old  cavern  roof,  the 
remainder  having  been  removed  by  weathering. 

scenery.  Mineral  springs,  as  the  White  Sulphur,  are  also 
much  visited  by  tourists  in  this  mountain  region.  The 
sources  of  the  James  are  on  the  highest  slopes  of  the  great 
north  mountain  range  where  the  valley  sides  are  clothed 


60  TYPE  STUDIES 

with  a  thick  forest  of  evergreen  and  hard  woods.  The 
boundary  between  Virginia  and  West  Virginia  is  an 
irregular  line  which  follows  the  high  ridges  of  these  rough 
and  forest-clad  mountains.  In  early  days  these  track- 
less and  forbidding  ridges  almost  shut  out  the  Virginians 
from  West  Virginia  and  Kentucky.  The  New  River, 
which  is  the  upper  part  of  the  Great  Kanawha,  has 
cut  its  way  through  all  these  mountain  barriers,  and  the 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Railroad,  following  the  valley  and 
gorges  of  this  stream  and  frequently  tunnelling  the  cliffs, 
has  been  built  through  one  of  the  most  interesting  and 
picturesque  parts  of  the  Alleghanies.  The  James  River 
drains  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  mountains  just  opposite  the 
Great  Kanawha,  and  it  is  by  following  the  gorges  cut  by 
these  rivers  that  railroads  are  able  to  make  their  way 
across  this  series  of  mountain  ridges,  thus  connecting  the 
east  with  the  west.  The  ridge,  however,  which  separates 
the  head  waters  of  opposing  streams,  must  be  tunnelled. 

In  following  the  elames  River  from  its  mouth  at  Old 
Point  Comfort  to  its  highest  springs  on  the  wooded  moun- 
tain sides  we  are  gradually  climbing  into  a  colder  climate. 
At  Fortress  Monroe  the  winters  are  so  mild  that  the  live 
oak  flourishes  and  holds  its  green  leaves  all  the  year.  But 
on  the  crests  of  the  Alleghanies  the  winters  are  cold  and 
severe.,  and  the  trees  are  like  those  of  Canada  and  the 
north.  Virginia  has  thus  a  great  variety  of  productions, 
of  soil,  of  surface,  and  of  climate. 

In  passing  from  the  mouth  of  the  James  River  west- 
ward to  the  mountains  we  pass  across  different  belts  as 
follows:  First,  Norfolk,  representing  the  line  of  coast 
cities  which  are  important  seaports,  as  Baltimore,  Wil- 
mington, Charleston,  Savannah,  and  Jacksonville.     They 


THE  JAMES  BIVEB  61 

are  connected  not  only  by  ocean-going  vessels  in  the  coast- 
wise trade,  but  a  line  of  inshore  water  traffic  is  traced 
from  Delaware  Bay  by  canal  to  the  head  of  Chesapeake 
Bay,  from  Norfolk  by  canal  to  Albemarle  Sound,  and 
southward,  behind  the  islands  of  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
Florida.  Florida  has  an  inshore  navigable  water  route 
for  about  six  hundred  miles.  Second,  all  the  way  from 
Long  Island  Sound  to  southern  Florida  the  fisheries  and 
oyster  beds  abound  in  these  inshore  waters.  Third,  about 
Norfolk  also  we  find  the  truck  farming,  which  extends 
along  the  coast  from  New  Jersey  to  Florida.  Fourth,  just 
back  from  the  coast  is  the  belt  of  turpentine  forests,  which 
occupy  the  sandy  barrens  of  many  of  the  southern  states. 
A  series  of  railroads  also  connects  the  seaport  cities,  one 
of  which  is  called  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line,  running  mainly 
parallel  with  the  shore  line.  Fifth,  Richmond,  on  the  fall 
line  between  tide-water  and  the  uplands,  represents  a  whole 
series  of  such  cities  as  Raleigh,  Columbia,  Augusta,  and 
Macon.  These  are  also  important  railroad  centres  and  lie 
usually  at  the  head  of  river  navigation.  Sixth,  the  cities 
of  the  Piedmont  belt,  close  to  the  foot-hills,  are  also  con- 
nected by  a  long  railway  line,  the  Great  Southern,  passing 
through  Charlottesville,  Lynchburg,  Danville,  Greens- 
boro, Charlotte,  and  Atlanta.  Seventh,  the  Blue  Ridge 
Mountain  chain  with  its  passes.  Eighth,  within  the  moun- 
tains, the  cities  of  the  Great  Valley,  from  Harrisburg  and 
Harper's  Ferry  to  Knoxville  and  Chattanooga,  are  con- 
nected by  a  long  line  of  railway.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  the 
chief  railroad  traffic  routes  of  the  whole  Atlantic  slope 
run  at  right  angles  to  the  river  courses  and  follow  these 
distinctly  marked  belts.  In  these  respects  the  James  is  a 
type  of  Atlantic  coast  rivers. 


62  TYPE  STUDIES 

A  comparison  of  the  James  River  with  the  Hudson  in 
the  following  points  will  prove  instructive  and  interest- 
ing:  — 

1.  Cities  and  railroad  centres  at  the  mouth,  harbors,  and 
bays. 

2.  The  tide-water  region  of  each.  The  advantages  for 
river  commerce. 

3.  Richmond  and  Albany  at  the  head  of  navigation. 

4.  The  sources  of  the  rivers  in  the  mountains.  The 
forests  and  scenery. 

5.  The  points  of  historic  interest  along  the  Hudson  and 
the  James  rivers. 

6.  The  geological  history,  drowned  river  valleys,  oyster 
beds,  etc. 

The  comparison  of  the  James  River  with  the  Potomac, 
Roanoke,  and  San  tee  as  coastal  streams  will  also  be  valuable. 


A  COAL-MINE 

In  many  parts  of  Illinois  the  coal-beds  lie  under  our 
feet.  Many  towns  and  cities  in  the  central  and  southern 
part  of  the  state  have  good  coal-mines.  So  great  is  the 
value  of  the  Illinois  coal-fields  that  the  black  soil  of  the 
prairies  is  scarcely  a  better  source  of  wealtli  than  the  coal- 
beds  that  lie  from  fifty  to  five  hundred  feet  below  the 
surface.  About  thirty-five  thousand  square  miles,  nearly 
two-thirds  of  the  state,  are  underlaid  by  these  rich  coal 
deposits.  The  borings  for  coal  in  different  counties  reveal 
that  sixteen  distinct  layers  of  coal  have  been  found,  rang- 
ing from  one  to  nine  feet  in  thickness.  Sometimes  three 
or  four  workable  coal  veins  have  been  opened  by  a  single 
boring,  as  at  Bloomington  and  Springfield. 

The  coal-beds  lie  in  layers  or  strata.  Like  the  rock 
strata  of  sandstone  and  limestone,  from  which  our  build- 
ing stone  comes,  the  coal  seams  lie  in  horizontal  layers 
between  the  layers  of  rock  and  sand.  When  first  formed 
upon  the  surface,  they  were  not  coal-beds,  but  consisted 
of  a  thick  matting  of  reeds,  ferns,  and  tree  trunks.  As 
the  land  sunk,  water  flowed*  over  these  beds,  collecting 
thick  layers  of  mud,  sand,  and  gravel  over  them,  which 
afterward  changed  into  rock.  The  layer  of  plants  and 
trees  changed  into  coal. 

The  three  most  common  ways  of  entering  a  coal-bed  are 
by  drift,  slope,  and  shaft.  The  drift  is  begun  in  a  hill- 
side where  the  coal  seams  crop  out.     After  removing  the 

63 


64  TYPE  STUDIES 

dirt  and  rubbish,  a  passage  is  worked  into  the  coal.  From 
fifteen  to  eighteen  feet  is  the  ordinary  width  to  accommo- 
date two  tracks,  and  ten  feet  will  readily  accommodate 
one.  Seven  feet  is  an  average  height,  but  it  may  be 
higher.  The  floor  of  the  drift  must  have  a  constant 
upward  grade  as  it  progresses  inward,  in  order  that  the 
water  may  run  out  and  that  loaded  cars  may  be  hauled 
more  easily.  The  mouth  of  the  drift  must  be  above  the 
adjacent  valley  or  stream,  so  that  the  water  may  be  car- 
ried away.  It  is  usually  necessary  to  support  the  roof 
and  sides  of  the  drift  by  timbers,  joined  together  in  the 
form  of  a  bent  and  placed  more  or  less  close  to  each  other. 
The  drift  is  the  simplest  and  most  economical  way  of 
making  an  entrance  to  a  mine,  as  there  is  no  expense  for 
sinking  the  shaft,  cutting  through  the  rock,  pumping  out 
the  water,  or  hoisting  the  coal.  But  most  of  the  coal-beds 
lie  below  the  level  of  the  streams  and  valleys. 

If  there  is  an  outcrop  of  coal  on  the  tract  to  be  mined, 
and  the  dip  of  the  seam  (downward  into  the  hill)  is  not 
more  than  twenty  degrees,  it  is  usually  advisable  to  enter 
the  mine  by  means  of  a  slope.  This  is  a  passage  which, 
beginning  at  the  outcrop,  follows  the  coal  seam  down 
until  the  necessary  depth  is  reached.  It  is  driven  in  the 
coal.  The  slope  in  some  of  the  coal-fields  is  driven  down 
about  three  hundred  feet,  at  which  point  gangways  are 
opened  out  to  right  and  left,  and  chambers  extended 
from  them  back  toward  the  surface. 

In  early  mining  operations,  the  drift  and  the  slope  were 
much  used  in  entering  the  coal-fields,  as  they  were  easier 
and  cheaper,  but  most  of  the  beds  capable  of  being  entered 
in  this  way  have  been  mined  out,  and  the  coal  seam  is 
now  usually  reached  by  a  shaft. 


A   COAL-MINE  65 

The  shaft  is  like  a  great  well  sunk  straight  into  the 
earth.  Before  beginning  a  shaft,  it  is  desirable  to  locate 
the  coal-bed  and  its  slant  as  nearly  as  possible.  This  is 
done  by  studying  the  rocks  of  the  surrounding  country 
and   by   boring.     Since    a   shaft    costs    frequently    from 


Fig.  30. 

Diagram  to  illustrate  how  coal  is  dug  out  of  the  beds  in  tunnels,  and  raised 
to  the  surface  through  shafts. 

$25,000  to  1100,000,  it  is  desirable  to  make  no  mistakes 
in  its  location. 

In  beginning  to  open  the  shaft,  a  rectangular  hole  is 
dug  from  four  to  eight  feet  wider  and  longer  than  the 
proposed  dimensions  of  the  shaft,  and  the  soil  and  loose 
stones  are  thrown  out  from  large  areas  until  the  bed-rock 
is  reached. 

From  this  rock  a  cribbing  of  solid  timber  twelve  inches 
thick  is  built  up  to  the  surface,  on  the  four  sides  of  the 
opening,  to  prevent  the  earth  from  caving  in.     Sometimes 


66  TYPE  STUDIES 

heavy  walls  of  masonry  instead  of  the  timber  cribbing  are 
built.  When  this  has  been  accomplished,  sinking  through 
the  rocks  goes  on  by  the  ordinary  process  of  blasting, 
plumb-lines  being  held  at  the  corners  of  the  shaft  to  keep 
the  opening  vertical. 

The  horizontal  dimensions  of  the  modern  shaft  average 
about  twelve  feet  in  width  by  thirty  in  length.  The 
space  is  divided  crosswise  down  the  entire  depth  of  the 
shaft  into  compartments,  of  which  there  are  usually  four. 
The  first  of  the  compartments  is  the  pump-way,  space  de- 
voted to  pipes,  pump-rods,  and  other  appliances  connected 
with  the  pumping  system.  To  this,  six  feet  in  breadth 
are  allowed.  Then  comes  in  succession  the  two  carriage 
ways,  each  of  which  may  be  seven  feet  wide,  and  finally 
the  air-passage,  by  which  the  foul  air  is  exhausted  from 
the  mine,  and  to  which  ten  feet  are  appropriated.  The 
air-passage  is  boarded  up  and  made  as  nearly  as  possible 
air-tight.  The  carriage  in  each  of  the  carriage  passages 
is  raised  and  lowered  by  a  wire  cable,  fastened  to  the 
middle  of  the  cross-beam  above.  The  cars  of  coal,  as  well 
as  the  men,  are  raised  and  lowered  by  means  of  these  car- 
riages, and  great  care  for  safety  is  taken  in  their  construc- 
tion and  use. 

The  safety  carriage  is  now  generally  in  use  in  at  least 
one  of  the  hoisting  passages.  It  is  built  of  wrought  iron 
instead  of  wood  ;  it  has  a  bonnet  or  roof  to  protect  against 
falling  bodies;  and  it  has  safety  clutches  or  dogs  to  stop 
the  carriage  and  hold  it  in  place  in  case  of  accident  by 
breakage  of  the  rope  or  machinery. 

It  costs  usually  from  $300  to  $500  a  yard  to  sink  a 
shaft  with  four  such  compartments,  and  sometimes  a  shaft 
that  has  been  begun  at  a  great  expense  may  have  to  be 


A    COAL-MINE  67 

abandoned  because  of  the  great  rush  of  water  or  of  a  bed 
of  quicksand. 

It  is  usually  intended  to  sink  the  shaft  at  such  a  point 
that  its  foot  will  strike  the  lowest  part  of  the  coal-bed, 
which  usually  slopes.  In  working  out  into  the  coal  area 
from  the  foot  of  the  shaft,  the  slope  will  always  be  up- 
ward and  the  water  will  flow  toward  the  foot  of  the  shaft 
whence  it  can  be  pumped  out.  Usually  a  sort  of  water 
basin  is  excavated  on  the  lower  side  near  the  foot  of  the 
shaft.  In  this  cistern  the  water  collects  from  all  parts  of 
the  mine  and  an  engine  above  pumps  it  through  the  pipes 
of  the  water-passage  and  discharges  it  above  ground. 
Sometimes  it  takes  a  powerful  engine  constantly  pumping 
to  keep  down  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  mine. 

From  the  first  it  is  necessary  to  secure  a  good  circulation 
of  air  through  the  passages  and  chambers,  so  that  foul 
air  and  gases  produced  in  the  mine  can  be  constantly 
removed.  From  the  foot  of  the  shaft,  on  one  side,  a  passage 
is  cut  through  the  coal  from  ten  to  fourteen  feet  wide. 
This  is  one  of  the  main  gangways.  After  reaching  a 
short  distance,  a  narrow  passage,  six  feet  wide,  is  cut  at 
right  angles  to  the  gangway  to  a  distance  of  from  fifteen . 
to  thirty  feet.  At  the  extremity  of  this  cross-heading  a 
passage  is  run  parallel  to  the  gangway.  After  running 
the  gangway  and  this  last  air-passage  parallel  for  a  dis- 
tance of  sixty  or  more  feet,  they  are  connected  again  by  a 
cross-heading.  It  is  evident  now  that  we  have  a  square 
enclosed  by  tunnels,  namely  by  the  gangway,  the  air-pas- 
sage, and  the  two  cross-headings.  It  is  possible,  therefore, 
to  cause  the  fresh  air  to  pass  round  this  square  and  to  re- 
turn, collecting  the  gases  and  other  impurities  on  the  way 
through  the  passage  and  driving  them  back  on  its  return 


68  TYPE  STUDIES 

to  the  foot  of  the  shaft  where  they  are  all  carried  up  the 
air-passage  to  the  open  day.  By  means  of  a  wooden  par- 
tition in  the  gangway,  and  an  extra  air-passage,  the  foul 
air  on  its  return  is  kept  separate  from  the  fresh  air  that 
enters  the  mine  from  the  main  shaft.  This  current  of  air 
^s  kept  in  motion  by  a  fan  driven  by  a  steam-engine.  It 
stands  not  far  from  the  foot  of  the  shaft  and  sends  the 
foul  air  in  a  strong  current  up  the  shaft.  The  fresh  air 
passes  down  the  carriage  or  elevator  passage  to  make  good 
this  deficiency.  In  this  way  a  constant  circulation  is  kept 
up  in  the  mine.  This  constant  stream  of  fresh  air  is  nec- 
essary to  the  miners  because  the  fire-damp  and  otlier  foul 
and  explosive  gases  collect  rapidly  in  the  mine,  and  would 
soon  make  it  not  only  dangerous  but  impossible  to  work 
longer. 

As  soon  as  proper  arrangements  have  been  made  for  the 
circulation  of  air  and  for  pumping  out  the  water  that  con- 
stantly accumulates,  the  regular  work  of  mining  the  coal 
can  be  begun.  The  coal  between  the  main  gangway  and 
the  air-passage  is  left  standing  as  a  support  to  the  roof  of 
the  mine.  The  miners  begin  now  to  open  a  way  from  the 
air-passage  outward,  and  after  a  narrow  opening,  wide 
enough  for  a  coal  car,  has  been  cut  to  a  distance  of  fifteen 
feet,  the  miner  begins  to  mine  away  the  coal  and  form  a 
chamber  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  feet  wide  ;  a  track 
is  also  laid  from  the  chamber  to  the  foot  of  the  shaft.  The 
coal  is  removed  by  the  car  on  the  track  and  carried  to  the 
mouth  of  the  shaft  to  be  raised  above  ground.  A  second 
chamber  parallel  to  the  first  is  then  dug,  connecting  in  the 
same  manner  with  the  air-passage.  A  partition  of  coal 
from  fourteen  to  twenty  feet  thick  separates  the  two 
chambers.     In  order  to  secure  a  circulation  of  air  through 


A   COAL-MINE- 


69 


these  chambers  a  passage  is  cut  through  this  partition  and 
the  air-passage  outside  of  the  chambers  is  closed  up  by  a 
wooden  partition  so  that  the  air  in  its  circuit  passes 
through  the  chambers.  The  chambers  are  now  extended 
deeper  into  the  vein  of  coal  ;  at  every  twenty-four  or 
twenty-six  feet  a  new 
air-passage  is  opened  up, 
while  the  old  one  is 
closed,  thus  causing  the 
air  to  circulate  close  up 
to  where  the  men  are 
working.  Several  of 
these  chambers  are  car- 
ried up  parallel  to  each 
other  into  the  vein  of 
coal  at  the  same  time, 
and  as  the  coal  is  dug 
away  it  is  removed  in 
cars  to  the  mouth  of  the 
shaft,  while  the  air  is 
kept  fresh  in  them  all. 

The  number  of  per- 
sons employed  in  a 
single  mine  varies  from 
a  dozen  in  the  newest 
and  smaller  mines  to 
seven  or  eight  hundred  in  the  largest  and  busiest.  There 
are  generally  four  workmen,  two  miners,  and  two  laborers 
employed  in  each  chamber.  The  miners  are  employed  by 
the  coal  company  and  the  laborers  are  employed  by  the 
miners.  The  miners  belong  to  the  aristocracy  of  the 
underground  workers. 


Fig.  31. 
A  view  in  a  coal-mine  in  Pennsylvania. 


70  TYPE  STUDIES 

After  working  a  few  feet  into  the  coal,  props  usually 
become  necessary  to  prevent  the  roof  from  falling.  The 
hard-wood  props  used  are  nine  inches  in  diameter.  They 
are  furnished  in  large  quantities  by  the  mining  companies. 
The  miner  as  he  advances  into  the  coal  sets  up  these  props 
where  there  seems  danger  of  the  roof  falling  and  makes 
them  firm  against  the  ceiling  by  driving  a  flat  wedge  be- 
tween the  top  of  the  prop  and  the  coal.  This  flat  wedge 
also  remains  and  causes  the  prop  to  hold  up  a  larger  sec- 
tion of  the  roof  of  the  mine. 

Sometimes  the  props  are  not  so  much  needed.  The 
chief  work  of  the  miner  is  to  blast  out  the  coal  from  the  face 
of  the  chamber  and  set  up  the  props.  When  ready  to  begin 
blasting  he  takes  up  the  drill,  an  iron  rod  five  and  a  half  feet 
long  and  more  than  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  sharp  like 
a  chisel  at  the  point.  With  quick,  sharp  strokes  and  by 
turning  the  drill  in  his  hands,  the  miner  works  a  hole  into 
the  face  of  the  coal  about  four  and  a  half  feet  deep.  After 
this  hole  has  been  cleaned  out,  a  cartridge  containing  black 
powder  is  pushed  into  the  farthest  extremity  'of  the  hole. 
Fine  moist  dust  is  then  pressed  against  the  cartridge,  leav- 
ing a  small  hole  from  which  a  fuse  may  reach  the  cartridge. 
The  fuse  is  then  laid  in  this  hole  and  lighted.  The  miner 
cries  "  Fire,"  and  the  men  hasten  to  get  behind  some  pillar 
or  wall  of  coal.  The  fuse  burns  slowly  and  the  men  have 
plenty  of  time  to  escape  from  danger.  The  explosion 
throws  out  a  considerable  quantity  of  coal  into  the  cham- 
ber in  large  and  small  pieces.  Soon  the  miner  is  at  work 
boring  another  hole  for  blasting.  But  the  boring  is  often 
very  difficult  and  laborious ;  sometimes  the  miner  works  on 
his  hands  and  knees,  sometimes  lying  on  his  back  on  the  wet 
floor,  sometimes  holding  the  drill  high  above  his  head  and 


A   COAL-MINE  71 

sometimes  he  uses  a  machine  drill  worked  by  a  crank. 
When  the  miner  has  blasted  down  the  coal  and  set  up  the 
props,  his  day's  work  is  done.  He  enters  the  mine  at  seven 
or  before,  and  often  has  his  day's  work  done  by  ten  or  eleven 
o'clock.  The  laborer  has  to  break  up  the  chunks  of  coal, 
load  the  cars,  move  them  to  the  gangway,  and  keep  the 
chamber  clean  for  work.  His  day's  work  lasts  longer 
than  the  miner's,  but  he  hopes  some  day  to  be  a  miner 
himself. 

Boys  are  often  employed  in  the  mines  to  drive  the  mules 
back  and  forth  from  the  foot  of  the  shaft  with  the  trains 
of  cars.  Sometimes  they  open  and  close  the  doors  in  the 
air-passages.  In  Pennsylvania  they  are  prohibited  from 
working  in  the  mines  under  fourteen  years  of  age. 

The  dangers  connected  with  mining  are  numerous,  and 
the  law  requires  that  many  precautions  shall  be  taken 
to  prevent  accident  and  death.  Some  of  the  chief  dan- 
gers are  from  caving  in  of  the  roof,  from  explosions  of 
fire-damp,  from  deadly  gases,  from  flooding  the  mines 
with  water;  from  fires  in  the  shaft  or  in  the  tunnels. 
Besides  these,  there  is  danger  from  the  falling  of  cars  and 
other  objects  in  the  shaft,  from  collisions  between  the  cars, 
etc.  One  of  the  most  common  dangers  is  from  the  caving 
in  of  the  roof ;  in  spite  of  the  care  taken  to  prop  up  the 
roof  with  heavy  posts,  the  roof  caves  in,  breaking  the 
posts  and  crushing  the  men  to  death.  It  happens  some- 
times very  suddenly,  and  in  some  cases  several  acres  of 
tunnels  have  fallen  at  once,  burying  many  men.  At 
times  the  men  can  tell  by  the  creaking  noises  that  the  roof 
is  about  to  fall  and  can  save  themselves. 

Fire-damp  and  other  inflammable  gases  are  constantly 
oozing  from  the  coal  in  some  deep  mines,  and  unless  the 


72  TYPE  STUDIES 

current  of  air  is  strong,  they  collect  and  are  ignited  by  a 
lamp,  causing  an  explosion.  As  these  burning  gases,  be- 
ing lighter  than  the  air,  lie  along  the  roof  of  the  mine,  the 
miner  throws  himself  with  his  face  to  the  ground  and  his 
arms  around  his  head  to  escape  the  heat  above.  But  as 
soon  as  the  gases  have  burned  out,  he  rises  quickly  and 
escapes,  as  the  poisonous  after-damp,  or  smoke  from  the 
fire,  settles  to  the  ground,  and  a  single  breath  of  this 
will  suffocate  the  miner. 

In  some  cases  a  flood  of  water  and  mud  has  been  known 
to  break  through  the  wall  of  the  mine  and  drown  or  bury 
the  men  suddenly.  This  is  especially  apt  to  be  the  case 
when  a  new  mine  is  being  worked  near  an  old,  abandoned 
one,  in  which  great  quantities  of  water  have  been  allowed 
to  collect. 

Fires  have  sometimes  broken  out  in  mines,  resulting- in 
the  death  of  hundreds  of  workmen.  Men  are  suffocated 
by  the  smoke,  heat,  and  gases  produced.  In  a  few  cases 
the  buildings  over  the  shaft  have  first  taken  fire  and  then 
the  woodwork  in  the  shaft,  and  gradually  the  mine  below. 
Of  course  the  air  currents  were  stopped  and  the  men 
below  suffocated.^ 

The  machinery  connected  with  a  large  coal-mine  is 
varied  and  extensive.  Not  far  from  the  entrance  to  the 
shaft  are  engine-houses,  for  hoisting  the  carriages,  coal, 
men,  etc.,  also  the  engine  for  pumping  the  water  from  the 
mine.     The  elevators  or  carriages  have  tracks  on  the  floor 

1  In  some  states  laws  have  been  passed  by  the  state  legislatures 
forbidding  wooden  buildings  over  the  mouths  of  shafts.  They  are 
apt  to  catch  on  fire  and  then  set  the  mine  on  fire,  producing  great  dis- 
asters. In  some  states  a  second  shaft  is  also  required,  through  which 
miners  may  escape  in  case  of  fire. 


A    COAL-MINE  73 

upon  which  the  loaded  coal-cars  can  be  run.  Mules  are 
used  in  the  gangways  and  air-passages  for  hauling  the  cars 
to  and  from  the  shaft.  Sometimes  a  stable  is  fitted  up  in 
the  mine  and  the  mules  are  kept  below.  Wooden  tracks 
are  laid  for  the  cars.  Air-boxes  are  laid  in  places  for  con- 
ducting fresh  air.  Besides  these  things  there  are  tools, 
powder,  lamps,  and  oil  needed  in  mining. 

Above  ground  in  the  anthracite  coal  regions  is  the 
large  building  known  as  the  breaker^  where  the  large 
chunks  of  coal  are  broken  between  great  revolving  wheels 
or  cylinders  with  pointed  iron  teeth.  The  broken  coal 
then  passes  into  wire  screens  with  small  meshes,  through 
which  the  fine  pieces  drop  and  the  coarser  pieces  pass 
on  to  coarser  screens,  till  at  length  the  larger  pieces  are 
dropped  through.  In  this  way  the  coal  is  separated  into 
several  varieties  according  to  the  size  of  the  lump,  such  as 
lump  coal,  egg  coal,  nut  coal,  etc.  In  the  breakers  boys 
are  also  employed  to  sit  in  the  troughs  and  chutes  to  pick 
out  the  pieces  of  slate  and  stone  and  throw  them  to  one 
side. 

"  The  first  visit  to  a  mine  ^  is  full  of  strange  sights  and 
sounds.  The  first  noteworthy  thing  is  the  descent  on  the 
cage  or  carriage.  Under  the  care  of  the  mine  foreman, 
we  were  allowed  to  go  down.  From  the  head  to  the  foot 
of  every  shaft  a  speaking-tube  extends,  and  signalling 
apparatus,  which  is  continued  to  the  engine-room.  At 
the  head  of  the  shaft  is  stationed  a  head-man  and  at  the  foot 
of  the  shaft  a  foot-man,  whose  assistants  aid  in  pushing  the 
cars  on  and  off  the  carriages.  The  foot-man  is  notified  of 
your  coming  as  you  take  your  place  in  the  empty  safety 
carriage.  It  swings  lightly  as  you  step  on  it  realizing 
1  Greene's  "  Coal  and  Coal  Mines/'  Houghton,  Mifflin,  &  Co. 


74  TYPE  STUDIES 

that  besides  the  few  inches  of  planking  unde'r  your  feet 
there  is  nothing  between  you  and  the  floor  of  the  mine 
five  hundred  feet  or  more  below  you.  When  all  is  ready  the 
foreman  cries, '  Slack  off !  '  the  carriage  is  slightly  raised, 
and  the  descent  begins.  If  tlie  carriage  goes  down  as 
rapidly  as  usual,  your  first  sensation  will  be  that  of  falling, 
and  your  first  impulse  will  be  to  grasp  something  above 
you.  Then  it  will  seem  as  if  the  motion  were  reversed, 
and  there  will  be  an  alternation  of  these  sensations  during 
the  minute  or  two  occupied  in  the  descent.  Finally,  the 
motion  of  the  carriage  becomes  suddenly  slower  and  you 
feel  it  strike  gently  at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft. 

"  As  you  step  into  the  darkness  nothing  is  visible  to  you 
except  the  shifting  flames  of  the  workmen's  lamps.  After 
a  few  minutes  you  are  able  to  distinguish  objects  that  are 
ten  or  fifteen  feet  away.  You  can  see  through  the  murky 
atmosphere  the  rough  walls  of  the  solid  coal  about  you, 
the  flat,  black,  moist  roof  overhead,  and  the  mine  car  track 
at  your  feet.  The  carriages  appear  and  disappear  and  are 
loaded  and  unloaded  at  the  foot  of  the  shaft,  while  the 
passage  at  one  side  of  which  you  sit  is  filled  with  mine 
cars,  mules,  and  miner  boys  in  apparently  inextricable 
confusion.  The  body  of  a  mule  looms  up  suddenly  in 
front  of  you,  you  catch  a  glimpse  of  a  boy  hurrying  by 
you,  a  swarthy  face  lighted  up  by  the  flame  of  a  lamp 
gleams  out  of  the  darkness,  but  the  body  that  belongs  to 
it  is  in  deep  shadow ;  you  cannot  see  it. 

"  Bare,  brawny  arms  become  visible  and  are  withdrawn, 
men's  voices  sound  strange,  there  is  a  constant  rumbling 
of  cars,  a  regular  clicking  sound  as  the  carriage  stops  and 
starts,  incessant  shouting  of  the  boys  ;  somewhere  the 
sound  of  falling  water.     Such  are  the  sights  and  sounds  at 


A   COAL-MINE  lb 

the  shaft's  foot.  If  now  you  pass  in  along  the  gangway, 
throwing  the  light  to  your  feet  to  see,  there  will  be  a 
sense  of  confinement  in  the  narrow  passage  with  its  low 
roof  and  close,  black  walls.  Occasionally  you  will  have 
to  crowd  against  the  rib  to  let  a  trip  of  mine  cars  pass  by, 
drawn  by  a  smoking  mule,  in  charge  of  a  boy  with  soiled 
face  and  greasy  clothes.  You  are  lucky  if  you  are  in  a 
mine  where  the  roof  is  so  high  that  you  need  not  bend 
over  as  you  walk.  The  men  whom  you  meet  have  little 
lamps  on  their  caps,  smoking  and  flaming  in  the  strong 
air  current.  Everything  is  black  and  dingy.  Now  you 
come  to  a  door  on  the  upper  side  of  the  gangway.  A 
small  boy  jumps  up  from  a  bench  and  pulls  the  door  open 
for  the  party  to  pass  through.  As  it  closes  behind  you 
the  strong  current  nearly  extinguishes  your  lamp.  You 
walk  along  the  air-way  for  a  little  distance  and  then  you 
come  to  the  foot  of  the  chamber.  Up  somewhere  in  the 
darkness,  apparently  far  away,  you  see  four  lights 
twinkling ;  they  appear  and  disappear,  they  waver  from 
side  to  side,  they  bob  up  and  down,  till  you  wonder  what 
strange  contortions  the  people  who  carry  them  must  be 
going  through  to  give  them  such  erratic  movements.  By 
and  by  there  is  a  cry  of  '  Fire ! '  It  is  repeated  several 
times.  Three  lights  move  suddenly  down  the  chamber 
and  disappear,  then  the  fourth  one  approaches  and  disap- 
pears also.  The  men  who  carry  them  have  hidden  behind 
pillars.  You  wait,  one,  two,  three  minutes,  looking  into 
the  darkness.  Then  there  is  a  sudden  wavelike  movement 
in  the  air;  it  strikes  your  face;  you  feel  it  in  your  ears;  the 
flame  of  your  lamp  is  blown  aside.  Immediately  there  is 
a  sound  of  explosion  and  the  crash  of  falling  blocks  of 
coal.       Soon  the  lights  reappear,  all  four  of  them,  and 


76  TYPE  STUDIES 

advance  toward  the  face.  In  a  minute  they  are  swallowed 
up  in  the  powder  smoke  that  has  rolled  out  from  the  blast. 
But  when  the  smoke  has  reached  and  passed  you  the  air  is 
clear  again,  and  the  lights  twinkle  and  dance  as  merrily  as 
they  did  before  the  blast  was  fired.  Now  you  go  up  the 
chamber,  being  careful  not  to  stumble  over  the  high  caps 
into  the  notches  with  which  the  wooden  rails  of  the  track 
are  lined.  On  one  side  is  a  wall  built  up  with  pieces  of 
slate  and  the  refuse  of  the  mine  ;  on  the  other  you  can 
reach  out  and  touch  the  heavy  wooden  props  that  support 
the  roof.  Up  at  the  face  there  is  a  scene  of  great  activity. 
Bare-armed  men,  without  coat  or  vest,  are  working  with 
bar  and  pick  and  shovel,  moving  the  fallen  coal  from  the 
face,  breaking  it,  loading  it  into  the  mine  car  which  stands 
near  by.  The  miners  are  at  the  face  prying  down  loose 
pieces  of  coal.  One  takes  his  lamp  and  flashes  its  light 
along  the  black,  broken,  shiny  surface,  deciding  upon  the 
best  point  to  begin  the  next  drill  hole,  and  giving  quick 
orders  to  the  laborers.  He  takes  up  his  drill,  balances  it 
in  his  hand,  strikes  a  certain  point  on  the  surface  with  it, 
turning  it  slightly  at  each  stroke.  He. has  taken  his  posi- 
tion lying  on  his  side  perhaps,  and  then  begins  the  regular 
tap,  tap  of  the  drill  into  the  coal.  The  laborers,  having 
loaded  the  mine  car,  remove  the  block  from  the  wheel,  and 
now,  grasping  the  end  of  it  firmly,  hold  back  on  it  as  it 
moves  by  gravity  down  the  chamber  to  the  gangway.  You 
may  follow  it  out,  watch  the  driver  boy  as  he  attaches  it  to 
his  trip,  and  go  with  him  to  the  foot  of  the  shaft. 

"  You  have  seen  something  of  the  ceaseless  activity  and 
noise  of  a  mine  when  hundreds  of  men  are  at  work.  But 
when  you  are  alone  in  such  a  place,  or  in  an  abandoned  mine, 
the  stillness  is  profound  like  nothing  above  ground." 


A   COAL-MINE  77 

The  above  description  applies  especially  to  the  anthra- 
cite coal  region,  where  the  coal  is  got  out  by  blasting,  and 
large  buildings  above  ground,  called  breakers^  prepare  the 
coal  by  crushing  and  separating  it  for  the  market. 

The  bituminous  or  soft  coal  fields  are  worked  upon  a 
somewhat  different  plan.  The  seams  of  coal  do  not  lie  so 
deep,  drifts  are  much  more  used,  and  instead  of  drilling 
holes  into  the  coal,  grooves  are  cut,  and  then  by  prying  or 
blasting,  the  coal  is  got  free.  The  soft-coal  beds  are  more 
level  and  uniform,  and  for  this  reason  more  easily  worked. 

If  we  turn  to  the  uses  to  which  coal  is  put  after  reach- 
ing the  surface,  we  shall  begin  to  see  the  importance  of 
this  business.  The  mines  are  usually  along  railroad  lines 
or  rivers,  which  distribute  the  coal  to  those  districts  where 
it  is  most  used.  The  railroads  themselves  consume  a 
great  deal  in  their  locomotive  engines  for  freight  and  pas- 
senger service.  The  railroad  machine  shops  depend  upon 
coal  for  putting  their  machinery  in  motion,  for  their  fur- 
naces, forges,  stationary  engines,  etc.  In  our  towns  and 
cities  the  multitude  of  factories  depend  almost  entirely 
upon  coal,  as  in  car  shops,  rolling-mills,  glass  works,  foun- 
dries, factories  for  the  manufacture  of  carriages,  furni- 
ture, boots  and  shoes,  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  paper, 
printing-presses,  farming  implements,  etc.  Except  when 
water-power  is  used  in  flour-mills,  woollen-mills,  etc.,  most 
of  our  factories  are  run  by  steam-engines.  Coal  is  also  of 
importance  in  most  households  for  heating  purposes. 
Dwellings,  schoolhouses,  and  buildings  of  all  sorts  are 
heated  generally  by  the  use  of  coal.  It  is  clear,  then,  that 
coal  mining  is  one  of  those  occupations  that  is  necessary 
to  the  success  of  nearly  all  other  kinds  of  business,  and  to 
the  comfort  of  most  people  in  their  homes.     The  men  who 


78 


TYPE  STUDIES 


are  digging  in  the  dark  earth  far  below  the  surface  are 
supplying  all  other  classes  of  people  with  the  means  of 
doing  business  and  of  living  in  comfort. 

That  the  prairie  states  of  the  west  be  well  supplied 
with  coal-fields  is  of  special  importance.  Without  these 
underground  riches,  the  states  of  Illinois  and  Iowa,  for 
example,  could  not  settle  up  so  rapidly  ;  railroads  could 
not  have  been  built  and  operated,  and  farmers  could  not 


~^^S;^       m        U5        iTi 


legend: 
I  Some  Coal  Produced 
i  Greatest  Coal  Prodacing  Section 


Fig.  32. 

ship  the  rich  products  of  the  prairies  to  the  east  and  re- 
ceive in  return  the  manufactures  and  other  exchanges  of 
that  section. 

Let  us  observe  the  location  of  the  chief  coal-fields.  In 
Illinois  they  extend  over  about  two-thirds  of  the  state 
south  of  a  line  drawn  from  Rock  Island  to  Joliet.  The 
coal  lies  at  different  depths  and  in  separate  strata.  In  a 
number  of  places  the  coal  veins  crop  out  along  the  banks 


A   COAL-MINE  79 

of  creeks  and  rivers,  as  at  Danville,  Peoria,  etc.,  but  usu- 
ally vertical  shafts  are  sunk  from  a  hundred  to  five  or  six 
hundred  feet  deep.  In  the  south-central  part  of  the 
state  some  of  the  coal-beds  lie  more  than  a  thousand  feet 
below  the  surface,  but  only  the  upper  veins,  nearer  the 
surface,  are  yet  worked.  Many  thousands  of  men  are 
employed  in  the  coal  mines  of  Illinois.  In  1889, 11,597,963 
tons  of  coal  were  mined  in  Illinois,  which  stands  second 
only  to  Pennsylvania  in  the  amount  of  coal  produced. 

Several  of  the  neighboring  states  also  have  extensive 
coal  areas.  A  strip  along  the  southwestern  part  of 
Indiana  yields  much  coal.  This  is  a  continuation  of  the 
Illinois  field,  and  extends  south  through  Kentucky  into 
Tennessee.  Altogether  these  four  states  have  about 
sixty  thousand  square  miles  of  coal  area. 

Another  extensive  coal-field,  larger  still,  extends  through 
central  and  western  Iowa,  into  Missouri,  eastern  Nebraska, 
Kansas,  Arkansas,  and  Indian  Territory.  The  whole 
western  slope  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  also  has  rich 
coal  deposits,  as  in  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  Ohio, 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Alabama.  In  Michigan,  Colo- 
rado, and  Texas,  there  are  also  smaller  coal  areas,  besides 
those  east  of  the  Alleghanies  and  west  of  the  Rockies. 
(In  order  to  fix  these  coal-fields  definitely,  consult  the  map 
on  the  preceding  page.  Fig.  32 ;  also  the  maps  in  Trotter's 
"  Geography  of  Commerce,"  p.  78,  and  Frye's  "  Complete 
Geography,"  p.  137.)  Locate  the  coal-fields  by  states 
on  a  map  and  draw  the  map. 

Notice,  on  a  large  map  of  the  United  States,  the  cities 
which  lie  in  or  near  the  coal-fields,  and  see  if  they  have 
any  relation  to  the  shipping  of  coal,  as  Pittsburg,  Phila- 
dolphia,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Cleveland,  Buffalo,  and  others. 


80  TYPE  STUDIES 

Observe,  also,  any  navigable  rivers  which  may  be  useful 
in  distributing  this  coal.  Let  teacher  and  pupils  draw  a 
map  of  the  United  States,  locating  the  coal  areas  by  states  ; 
also  the  cities  and  rivers  above  suggested. 

The  careful  and  detailed  description  thus  far  given  of 
the  business  of  coal  mining,  is  designed  to  bring  out 
clearly  its  importance  as  related  to  commerce,  manufactur- 
ing, and  domestic  use,  so  that  when  we  touch  upon  coal 
mining  and  the  other  occupations  to  which  it  is  related, 
we  shall  at  once  see  their  significance. 

Later  in  the  study  of  other  kinds  of  mining  operations, 
as  in  lead,  silver,  zinc,  and  gold,  the  knowledge  gained 
from  coal-mines  will  be  of  much  service,  and  a  com- 
parison with  coal-mines  to  point  out  differences  and  similar 
methods  will  be  helpful.  The  knowledge  gained  from  a 
full  study  of  a  single  typical  coal-mine  in  Pennsylvania 
and  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  will  help  not  only  in  under- 
standing coal-mines  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
in  the  world,  but  also  for  interpreting  all  kinds  of  mining 
operations. 

Note. — Most  of  the  above  facts  are  obtained  from  Greene's 
"  Coal  and  Coal  Mines/'  published  by  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 


ORANGE  GROVES  IN  FLORIDA 

Florida  for  many  years  was  famous  for  the  production 
of  sweet  and  juicy  oranges.  After  the  great  freeze  of  1895, 
which  destroyed  so  many  of  the  groves,  oranges  had  to  be 
sought  elsewhere.  But  the  production  is  gradually  in- 
creasing and  Florida  is  again  coming  into  the  market  as  a 
large  orange  producer. 

Up  to  1895  the  northern  part  of  Florida  abounded  in 
oranges  and  the  northern  people  who  had  wintered  in  the 
south  were  accustomed  to  tell  provoking  stories  of  the 
sweet  juiciness  and  cheap  abundance  of  the  oranges  among 
these  semi-tropical  orange  groves. 

In  February,  1895,  the  wiirm  spring  weather  had  coaxed 
the  orange  groves  into  full  spring  growth.  The  heavy 
crop  of  the  previous  season  was  still  hanging  in  golden 
profusion  on  the  trees,  the  buds  were  ready  to  burst  with 
the  fragrant  blossoms  and  the  trees  were  full  of  sap. 
Suddenly  one  afternoon,  in  the  midst  of  this  balmy 
warmth,  the  cold  wave  of  a  northern  blizzard  swept  down, 
over  all  northern  Florida,  the  thermometer  quickly  dropped 
far  below  the  freezing-point,  before  morning  the  trees  were 
covered  with  an  icy  sleet,  and  in  one  night  the  whole  world 
had  changed  color.  Hundreds  of  orange  groves  were 
completely  ruined  ;  not  only  the  rich  harvest  hanging  on 
the  trees  was  blackened  and  poisoned,  but  the  trees  were 
frozen  to  the  ground,  dead  as  old  stumps.  The  bark  of 
the  trees  was  split  from  top  to  bottom  and  complete  deso- 
G  81 


82  TYPE  STUDIES 

lation  and  rottenness  soon  took  the  place  of  the  prevailing 
bounty  of  a  few  hours  before.  In  all  northern  Florida 
scarcely  a  tree  survived  this  freezing  blast.  It  would  take 
from  ten  to  thirty  years  to  bring  to  perfection  such  a  stand 
of  orange  trees  as  were  found  in  the  groves  before  the 
freeze. 

The  overwhelming  nature  of  this  disaster  to  the  people 
of  Florida  is  better  understood  when  we  recall  the  fact 
that  orange  groves  were  almost  the  sole  productive  wealth 
of  the  people.  They  raised  almost  nothing  else ;  they  had 
very  few  gardens,  or  factories,  or  industries  of  any  kind. 
For  many  years  the  people  had  lived  so  easily  and  com- 
fortably upon  the  products  of  their  orange  groves  that 
they  had  taken  no  trouble  to  raise  potatoes,  or  corn,  or 
onions,  or  other  vegetables,  or  even  other  kinds  of  fruit. 
The  owners  of  good  groves  felt  very  secure,  and  were 
accustomed  to  buy  all  their  goods  from  the  north  and 
often  to  mortgage  the  next  crop  of  oranges  for  payment. 
After  the  freeze  many  families  of  wealth  and  comfort  had 
absolutely  nothing  to  live  upon.  A  man  who  the  day 
before  was  supposedly  worth  $50,000,  as  based  upon  his 
orange  grove  and  crop,  was  now  not  able  to  raise  a  dollar. 
Orange  land  worth  $1000  an  acre  before  the  freeze  was 
now  estimated  at  not  more  than  ten  dollars  an  acre.  It 
has  been  said  that  northern  Florida  suffered  as  much, 
relatively,  from  this  disastrous  freeze  as  Chicago  did  in 
the  great  fire.  Undoubtedly  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of 
property  had  been  destroyed.  Many  people  were  suddenly 
brought  into  the  greatest  straits  to  make  a  bare  living. 

At  Palatka,  Florida,  fifty  miles  south  of  Jacksonville 
on  the  St.  Johns  River,  was  found,  before  the  freeze,  one 
of  the  great  centres  of  orange  shipment.     Oranges  were 


ORANGE  GROVES  IN  FLORIDA  88 

hauled  in  wagon  loads,  or  brought  in  boat  loads,  into  the 
packing  houses  along  the  river  docks  at  Palatka,  and 
loaded  upon  steamboats  for  the  northern  market.  For 
miles  around  the  country  was  rich  in  orange  groves, 
from  ten  to  forty  years  old.  All  along  the  river  also,  on 
lands  that  were  not  too  swampy,  were  great  orange  plan- 
tations with  fine  southern  houses  and  full  equipment  of 
barns,  sheds,  and  packing  houses.  These  places  had  their 
private  wharves  where  the  crop  was  loaded  upon  steamboats. 
The  great  freeze  for  the  time  being  annihilated  these 
orange  groves  and  it  is  only  in  a  few  cases,  and  gradually, 
that  groves  were  replanted  and  developed. 

About  three  years  after  the  fruit  freeze,  when  many 
people  had  gotten  new  orange  groves  started  and  were 
looking  forward  to  an  early  renewal  of  their  profits  from 
the  orange  crop,  a  second  destructive  freeze  came  which 
paralyzed  the  hopes  of  the  orange  men. 

As  a  result  of  these  heavy  misfortunes,  many  people 
began  to  turn  their  attention  to  other  kinds  of  agriculture, 
gardening,  and  fruit  growing.  Orchards  of  pears  and 
peaches  were  planted,  gardens  of  lettuce,  cabbages,  celery, 
tomatoes,  and  other  vegetables  were  cultivated,  and  straw- 
berries were  raised  for  the  home  and  northern  market. 
Some  of  the  swamp  lands  underlaid  with  clay  when  well 
fertilized  have  been  found  very  prolific  in  potato  crops. 
Tens  of  thousands  of  bushels  of  early  potatoes  are  now 
shipped  each  year  to  New  York  and  other  northern  cities 
because  Florida  can  have  them  ready  for  market  by  the 
middle  of  April, -earlier  than  any  other  state.  Truck 
gardening  for  the  northern  market  is  now  quite  common 
in  Florida.  Many  acres  are  given  to  tomato  fields  and 
celery.     The  pineapple  has  also  been  extensively  raised, 


84  TYPE  STUDIES 

generally  in  covered  pineries  and  in  close  connection  with 
orange  groves.  Groves  of  pecan  trees  were  set  out.  The 
cultivation  of  grapes  for  the  manufacture  of  wine  was 
developed.  The  guava,  the  persimmon,  and  other  fruits 
of  the  semi-tropical  regions  were  tried  also. 

Many  other  kinds  of  business  have  also  been  developed, 
such  as  cattle  raising  in  the  swamp-lands  and  woods; 
regular  farming  for  corn  and  grain,  cotton  and  tobacco ; 
turpentining  in  the  pine  woods;  and  saw- mills  among  the 
pine  uplands  and  cypress  swamps. 

Besides  this  the  great  influx  of  northern  visitors  in  the 
winter  time,  with  plenty  of  money  and  enterprise,  has 
been  of  great  value  to  the  state  and  a  help  to  its  develop- 
ment. Along  the  coast  and  on  inland  rivers  and  lakes 
have  been  built  many  beautiful  hotels  and  health  resorts 
where  thousands  of  northern  visitors  spend  their  time  and 
money  during  the  winter  and  early  spring  months. 

The  orange  business,  also,  is  recovering  rapidly  from  its 
almost  complete  ruin.  The  region  of  orange  cultivation 
has  extended  much  farther  south,  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
occasional  frosts  and  cold  of  the  northern  part  of  the  state. 
From  along  the  Indian  River,  on  the  southeast  coast 
during  recent  winters  many  excellent  oranges  have  been 
received.  At  Orlando,  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  south  of 
Jacksonville,  the  orange  groves  are  looking  well  and  have 
already  borne  a  good  crop.  From  Palatka  southward 
there  are  many  promising  groves.  Along  the  gulf  coast 
below  Tampa  orange  groves  are  also  becoming  numerous 
and  productive. 

In  the  more  northern  and  exposed  sections  of  Florida 
the  ways  devised  for  protecting  young  orange  trees  from 
occasional  frosts  and  harder  freezes  are  interesting.  When 


ORANGE  GROVES  IN  FLORIDA  85 

first  planted,  for  three  or  four  years,  the  sandy  soil  is 
shovelled  up  three  or  four  feet  high  around  the  young  trees 
so  as  to  cover  them  almost  completely.  In  the  spring  the 
dirt  is  taken  away.  As  the  trees  grow  larger,  tents  are 
placed  over  them.  In  many  cases  a  large  circular  tent, 
made  to  open  and  close  around  a  large  hoop,  with  a  cap  at 
the  top,  is  made  to  circle  each  tree  when  a  cold  snap 
tlireatens.  On  frosty  nights  in  winter  the  tent  is  closed, 
a  lighted  lamp  placed  within  it,  and  the  lower  edges 
covered  with  dirt  to  close  it  up  more  tightly.  The  weather 
conditions  and  weather  reports  are  carefully  watched  and 
full  provision  is  made  for  sudden  cold  snaps.  As  the  tree 
grows  larger,  a  still  larger  tent  must  be  used.  Sometimes 
each  tree  is  surrounded  with  a  square  boxing  of  boards 
and  lamps  are  used  in  a  similar  manner. 

A  grove  is  also  often  protected  against  cold  by  heaping 
up,  at  intervals  among  the  trees,  small  piles  of  cord- wood, 
which,  on  an 'unusually  cold  night,  perhaps  two  or  three 
times  in  the  winter,  are  fired,  and  the  heat  and  smoke  pro- 
tect the  trees  from  the  frost.  A  grove  is  often  protected 
in  this  way  from  a  frost  that  would  destroy  the  crop  or 
injure  the  trees. 

A  still  more  expensive  mode  of  protecting  a  large 
grove  is  to  surround  it  with  a  high  stockade  or  tight 
board  fence,  tw^elve  or  fifteen  feet  high.  A  field  of  ten 
acres  is  fenced  in  this  way,  and  by  means  of  tall  posts 
arranged  in  rows  across  the  field  a  board  or  canvass  cover 
can  be  slid  across  so  as  to  completely  cover  the  whole  field. 
Such  a  structure  is  called  an  orange  shed  and  costs  about 
$1000  an  acre  for  its  construction.  Near  De  Land,  Florida, 
one  owner  has  several  such  sheds  covering  in  all  about 
sixty-five  acres  of  well-developed  orange  groves. 


86  TYPE  STUDIES 

To  keep  such  a  grove  warm  in  cold  weather,  sala- 
manders or  sheet-iron  stoves,  open  at  the  top  and  full 
of  coke,  are  set  at  intervals  under  the  shed  and  fired. 

It  has  been  fortunate  for  Florida  that  many  wealthy 
people  from  the  north  own  orange  groves  in  the  south. 
They  have  been  willing  to  spend  much  money  in  ex- 
periments in  various  ways  for  protecting  their  groves 
and  this  has  done  much  to  keep  up  this  great  industry. 
After  their  immense  losses  in  the  two  freezes,  the  smaller 
orange  farmers  in  Florida  could  not  afford  the  money 
for  such  expensive  and  doubtful  experiments. 

Even  under  ordinary  conditions  with  good  weather 
an  orange  grove  requires  much  care.  The  young  trees 
secured  from  an  orange  nursery  must  be  protected  from 
too  much  heat,  the  ground  kept  in  a  state  of  cultiva- 
tion, and  a  rich  supply  of  fertilizer  applied  each  year  to 
the  roots  of  the  young  trees.  The  trees  do  not  begin 
to  bear  much  until  about  five  years  old,  and  not  till 
about  ten  years  are  they  large  enough  to  bear  abun- 
dantly. They  are  known  to  continue  bearing  to  the 
age  of  fifty  years. 

The  fragrant  white  blossoms  of  the  orange  appear  in 
the  latter  part  of  February  and  in  March,  and  soon 
after  the  little  green  oranges  begin  to  form.  They 
grow  during  the  summer  and  fall  and  begin  to  ripen 
during  November,  but  they  remain  hanging  all  winter 
on  the  trees  unless  plucked.  Accordingly  it  is  not  un- 
common to  see  ripe  yellow  oranges,  young  green  fruit, 
and  blossoms  on  a  tree  at  the  same  time. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  winter  frosts,  the  crop  now  is 
generally  picked,  in  open  groves,  before  Christmas  or 
about  that  time.     They  are  carefully    packed    in    boxes 


ORANGE  GROVES  IN  FLORIDA  87 

and  shipped  to  northern  markets  where  their  superior 
flavor  insures  them  a  good  price. 

Several  varieties  of  orange  are  cultivated,  such  as 
russet,  navel,  king,  and  the  common  sorts.  The  tan- 
gerine, the  grape-fruit,  and  the  lemon  are  cultivated 
alongside  the  oranges  in  the  protected  groves.  The 
huge  pome  of  the  grape-fruit  has  come  into  much  favor 
of  late  years  though  formerly  little  regarded.  It  is 
often  as  large  as  a  half-gallon  pail. 

In  spite  of  the  destructive  frosts  of  a  few  years  ago, 
Florida  oranges  are  now  in  the  market,  and  a  steamboat 
trip  along  the  St.  Johns  River  will  bring  into  delightful 
view  many  a  beautiful  grove  along  the  winding  shores. 
From  the  shores,  also,  of  the  numerous  lakes  which  beautify 
the  landscape  of  Florida,  the  green,  flourishing  groves  are 
seen. 

One  result  of  the  distressing  frosts,  which  is  of  the 
greatest  importance,  is  the  great  variety  of  agricultural 
and  other  industries  which  have  since  sprung  up,  reveal- 
ing many  valuable  resources  which  were  formerly  little 
developed  or  thought  of.  A  like  disaster  can  hardly 
overtake  the  state  again  since  there  are  now  so  many 
profitable  industries  which  are  not  affected  by  the  frost. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  continent  in  southwestern 
California  is  a  similar  orange-producing  region  which  is 
the  chief  competitor  of  Florida  in  the  markets  of  the 
United  States. 

In  recent  years,  California  oranges  have  found  their 
way  all  over  the  United  States,  even  into  Florida.  It  is 
claimed  that  Florida  oranges  are  juicier  and  richer  in  fla- 
vor, but  the  California  crop  because  of  its  abundance  and 
reliability  has  largely  secured  the  market. 


88  TYPE  STUDIES 

It  is  probable  that  with  the  rapid  southward  extension 
of  orange  culture  along  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  of 
Florida,  the  quantity  of  fruit  raised  will  enable  her  to  re- 
gain her  place  in  the  orange  market.  The  great  extension 
of  pineapple  culture  and  that  of  grape-fruit,  together  with 
the  rapidly  growing  truck  farming  in  central  and  south- 
ern Florida  and  the  development  of  important  railroads 
throughout  this  region  are  bringing  all  these  products 
into  easy  relation  to  the  northern  and  eastern  markets. 


THE    ILLINOIS    RIVER 

Through  the  central  portion  of  Illinois  reaches  the 
crooked  valley  of  a  river  of  considerable  size.  Its  head- 
waters are  close  to  Lake  Michigan,  both  on  the  southeast 
and  on  the  west.  The  Indians  and  white  men  who  first 
explored  this  region,  carried  their  boats  across  the  portage 
at  South  Bend  to  the  Kankakee,  or  at  Chicago  to  the 
Des  Plaines.  The  Illinois  is  five  hundred  miles  long,  and 
for  two  hundred  and  forty-five  miles,  or  nearly  half  that 
distance,  is  regularly  used  by  steamboats  for  commerce. 
At  some  seasons  it  is  now  possible  to  launch  a  canoe  in  the 
Des  Plaines,  not  far  from  Chicago,  and  make  a  journey  by 
water  to  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois.  But  while  the  general 
slope  of  the  country  is  the  same  now  as  then,  while  the 
same  hills  and  bluffs  are  seen  along  the  streams,  every- 
thing else  appears  greatly  changed  since  the  days  of  Mar- 
quette and  La  Salle.  The  valley  of  the  Des  Plaines,  a 
mile  wide  in  places,  is  bordered  with  low  hills,  and  as  we 
move  south  toward  Joliet,  shows  some  curious  sights. 
Along  the  east  side  canal-boats  are  seen  gliding  by,  loaded 
with  stone  or  grain,  coal  or  lumber.  Sometimes  the  boats 
are  drawn  by  mules,  and  again  a  little  steam-engine  is 
seen  puffing  in  one  end  of  the  boat.  From  time  to  time 
the  canal  widens,  and  several  canal-boats  are  seen  lying  at 
anchor  just  above  a  lock,  through  which  the  boats  are  let 
down  to  a  lower  level,  if  they  are  passing  toward  Joliet  ; 
but  they  may  be  as  easily  raised  if  the  boat  is  headed  for 
Chicago.     The  lock  consists  of  heavy  side  walls  of  ma- 

89 


90  TYPE  STUDIES 

sonry,  with  stout,  double  doors  or  gates  at  each  end.  The 
boat  is  let  into  the  lock  by  opening  the  doors  at  one  end. 
If  it  is  headed  down  the  canal  the  lower  gates  are  then 
opened,  or  partly  so,  till  the  water  glides  out,  leaving  the 
water-level  in  the  lock  the  same  as  in  the  canal  below. 
The  water  in  the  canal  flows  steadily  from  Chicago  River 
toward  Joliet,  carrying  much  of  the  sewage  of  the  city 
into  the  Illinois.  Chicago  River  has  been  deepened  by  dig- 
ging and  dredging.  As  the  upper  end  of  the  canal  is  still 
lower  than  the  level  of  the  river,  the  water  flows  from  the 
river  into  the  canal  and  thus  draws  a  current  from  Lake 
Michigan.  At  the  present  time  we  may  see  where  the 
work  has  been  completed  of  excavating  a  much  deeper  and 
wider  canal,  which  may  serve  as  a  means  of  drainage  and 
of  water-power  to  the  city  of  Chicago.  The  machines 
employed  and  the  great  heaps  of  earth  and  rock  thrown 
out  show  how  great  this  undertaking  has  been.  In  many 
places  this  new  drainage  canal  is  excavated  through  solid 
rock  thirty  feet  deep  and  160  feet  wide  at  the  bottom. 
The  whole  cost  is  estimated  at  $21,000,000.  We  soon 
discover  that  the  old  canal,  as  well  as  the  new  one,  is  dug 
for  a  long  distance  in  the  solid  rock,  which  here  lies  close 
to  the  surface.  In  fact,  for  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  north 
of  Joliet,  the  whole  eastern  side  of  the  valley  seems  to  be 
one  long  row  of  rock  quarries,  where  the  limestone  strata, 
lying  in  regular  layers,  are  quarried  and  blasted  out, 
sawed,  and  placed  upon  canal-boats  or  railroad  cars,  to  be 
shipped  to  Chicago,  where  vast  quantities  are  needed  for 
the  foundations  of  buildings.  The  Chicago  and  Alton 
Railroad  also  runs  along  this  valley  with  the  low  hills 
and  quarries  on  one  side  and  the  canal  and  river  on  the 
other.     The  Chicago  and  Rock  Island  Road  passes  along 


THE  ILLINOIS  BIVER  91 

the  same  valley.  Just  before  reaching  Joliet,  our  atten- 
tion is  attracted  by  a  large  stone  structure,  which  has  the 
appearance  of  a  grand  old  castle,  with  high  walls  and 
towers  on  the  corners.  It  is  the  state  penitentiary,  where 
hundreds  of  criminals  are  kept,  and  the  rock  quarries 
not  only  furnish  materials  for  its  construction  but  also 
labor  to  many  of  the  convicts,  who  are  employed  in  the 
quarries. 

At  Joliet  we  may  see  great  steel  works,  blast  furnaces, 
and  mills,  and  at  this  place  the  canal  is  carried  across  the 
river  by  means  of  a  dam,  which  raises  the  water  to  the 
level  of  the  canal,  so  as  to  let  the  canal-boats  cross.  From 
this  place  the  canal  follows  the  north  bank  of  the  Des 
Plaines  and  of  the  Illinois,  till  at  Peru  it  enters  the  river. 
About  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  southwest  of  Joliet  the  Des 
Plaines  joins  the  Illinois  River,  which  is  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  Kankakee  and  Des  Plaines. 

At  most  of  the  large  towns  upon  the  Kankakee  and 
upon  the  Des  Plaines  we  shall  find  dams  in  the  river 
which  are  used  to  supply  water-power  to  mills  and  fac- 
tories, as  at  Wilmington,  Kankakee,  and  Joliet.  The  Fox 
River,  also,  which  joins  the  Illinois  from  the  north,  has 
several  large  towns  like  Aurora  and  Elgin  which  have 
good  water-power.  These  smaller  streams,  therefore, 
while  they  are  not  large  enough  for  steamboats,  are  still 
of  much  service  both  for  drainage  and  for  water-power. 

From  the  point  where  the  two  rivers  unite  to  form  the 
Illinois,  the  latter  becomes  an  interesting  river.  The 
bluffs  are  high  in  places  and  partly  wooded.  The  valley 
is  broad  and  the  river  winds  in  many  curves  through  the 
great  trough  which  has  been  cut  down  into  the  level 
})rairies  by  the  floods  of  water   that    have  swept  through 


92  TYPE  STUDIES 

this  channel  in  past  ages.  Geologists  tell  us  that  the 
waters  of  Lake  Michigan  once  found  their  outlet  to  the 
Mississippi  through  the  great  trough  of  the  Illinois  Valley. 
The  old  channel  connecting  the  lake  with  the  river  has 
been  found  south  of  Chicago,  but  was  choked  up  and  filled 
long  ago  by  gravel  and  drift. 

As  our  boat  glides  along  the  current  between  the 
wooded  bluffs  toward  La  Salle,  a  number  of  interesting 
spots  are  passed.  At  Ottawa  the  Fox  River  comes  in 
from  the  north,  and  over  it  the  canal  is  carried  on  a 
stone  bridge  or  aqueduct.  It  looks  much  like  a  stone 
railroad  bridge  with  great,  heavy  arches  to  support  the 
weight  of  water  passing  through  the  canal.  All  the 
streams  that  come  down  to  the  Illinois  from  the  north 
pass  under  the  canal  in  this  way.  The  canal,  of  course, 
follows  the  level  valley  between  the  river  and  the  bluffs. 
A  railroad,  the  Rock  Island,  follows  the  same  valley  close 
to  the  canal  and  river.  This  broad  valley  is  very  favor- 
able to  commerce  both  by  water  and  by  rail.  Swift- 
moving  railroad  trains  and  slow-moving  canal-boats  add 
much  to  the  life  of  this  region.  Near  Utica,  on  the  north 
side  of  the  river,  is  the  wide  meadow  where  the  great  vil- 
lage of  the  Illinois  Indians  once  stood,  and  near  which 
Tonty  tried  to  prevent  a  battle  between  the  Iroquois  and 
Illinois  tribes.  On  the  south  side  is  the  steep  front  of 
Starved  Rock,  on  the  top  of  which  Tonty  built  Fort  St. 
Louis.  Afterward,  according  to  tradition,  the  last  of  the 
Illinois  were  starved  to  death  on  the  summit  of  this  bluff. 
At  its  base  flows  the  Illinois  River,  at  the  rear  is  a  steep 
ascent,  and  the  broad  valley,  seen  from  its  top,  with  the 
winding  current,  is  very  picturesque.  On  the  north  side 
of  the  river  is  Buffalo  Rock,  also  famous  history. 


> 

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THE  ILLINOIS  BIVEE  93 

A  little  west  of  Starved  Rock  the  Vermilion  River 
enters  the  Illinois  Valley  from  the  south,  itself  coming 
through  a  deep,  narrow  valley,  along  which  is  found  some 
picturesque  scenery.  Deer  Park,  which  opens  into  this 
stream,  is  a  narrow,  rocky  caiion,  with  steep  sides  sixty 
feet  high,  which  are  thick  with  woods,  so  that  the  narrow 
gorge  is  cool  and  shady  even  on  hot  summer  days.  At 
the  upper  end  of  the  winding  canon  is  a  semicircle  of  steep 
rock,  over  which  a  little  stream  tumbles  and  then  flows 
down  through  the  caiion.  Deer  Park  is  only  a  few  miles 
from  Starved  Rock,  and  this  whole  region  is  interesting 
to  the  tourist. 

Just  before  reaching  La  Salle,  our  boat  passes  under  the 
high  bridge  of  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad.  At  La  Salle 
are  great  zinc  works,  which  can  be  seen  from  the  river. 
At  Peru,  a  few  miles  to  the  west,  the  Illinois  and  Michi- 
gan Canal  enters  the  river,  after  a  journey  of  ninety- 
eight  miles  from  Chicago.  From  this  point  on  the  river 
is  deep  enough  for  canal-boats  and  small  steamers. 

We  may  now  abandon  our  canoe  and  take  up  comfort- 
able quarters  on  a  steamboat  for  the  rest  of  the  journey. 
Above  this  the  river  is  too  shallow  for  steamers  in  summer 
time.  In  fact,  a  dam  in  the  river  at  Henry,  twenty  miles 
below  Peru,  raises  the  water  six  or  eight  feet  and  deepens 
the  current  twenty  miles  up-stream  as  far  as  Peru.  On 
the  west  side  of  the  dam  at  Henry  is  .a  lock,  which  enables 
boats  to  pass  by  the  dam.  The  dam  and  lock  at  Henry, 
by  means  of  which  the  water  is  deepened  above  and  boats 
allowed  to  pass  through,  belong  to  what  is  called  the 
system  of  slack-water  navigation.^ 

1  The  new  Drainage  Canal  has  so  much  increased  the  quantity  of 
water  in  the  Illinois  River  that  the  dams  at  Henry  and  below  are  not 
now  so  much  needed  as  formerly. 


94  TYPE  STUDIES 

Between  Peru  and  Henry  the  Illinois  River  makes  a 
grand  sweep  to  the  south.  The  valley  is  very  broad,  two 
or  three  miles  in  places,  and  the  bluffs  sometimes  two  hun- 
dred feet  high.  The  road  leading  from  the  prairies  to  the 
valley  below  follows  some  ravine,  and  must  descend  a  long, 
steep  hill  before  reaching  the  bottom-lands.  The  bottom- 
lands are  often  low  and  marshy,  sometimes  covered  with 
swamp-growing  trees.  Some  of  the  bottom-lands  are 
above  the  water-level  and  make  rich  corn-tields.  The  soil 
in  many  of  these  bottoms  is  very  deep  and  rich  (sometimes 
fifty  feet),  and  very  heavy  crops  are  raised.  But  in  wet 
seasons  the  crop  may  be  wholly  destroyed  by  the  floods. 
Among  the  bottom-lands  are  found  shallow  bayous  and 
lakes,  which  are  ancient  channels  of  the  river,  now  cut  off 
and  partly  filled  up.  In  the  season  of  duck  hunting,  thou- 
sands of  wild  duck  feed  among  the  swamps  and  bayous,  and 
the  sound  of  the  sportsman's  gun  may  be  heard  at  all  hours 
of  the  day  echoing  between  distant  bluffs  of  the  valley. 

Below  Henry  the  river  winds  through  a  broad  valley 
with  lower  and  more  sloping  bluffs.  After  passing  a 
number  of  wooded  islands  below  Lacon,  the  river  widens 
into  a  long,  shallow  lake  which  reaches  to  Peoria.  Peo- 
ria, which  is  near  the  site  of  the  old  Indian  village,  lies 
upon  a  sloping  plain  which  rises  gradually  a  mile  back 
from  the  river  to  the  foot  of  high,  wooded  bluffs.  The 
big  breweries,  distilleries,  and  glucose  factories,  for  which 
Peoria  is  noted,  lie  mostly  near  the  bank  of  the  river. 
The  best  business  streets  are  a  few  blocks  back  from  the 
river  and  higher  up  on  the  slope,  and  many  of  the  finer 
residences  have  been  lately  built  along  the  upper  edge  of 
the  bluffs  and  overlooking  the  valley  and  lake  for  miles. 

Just  below  Peoria  an  important  railroad  bridge  spans  the 


THE  ILLINOIS  RIVER  95 

river,  and  at  several  other  towns  below  there  are  railroad 
bridges,  as  at  Pekin,  Havana,  and  two  or  three  smaller 
places.  Below  Pekin  the  railroads  do  not  follow  the  val- 
ley, but  cross  it.  The  lower  part  of  the  river  is  chiefly 
important  as  a  navigable  stream  connecting  the  Mississippi 
with  the  canal  and  Lake  Michigan.  Steamboats  regularly 
pass  from  St.  Louis  to  Peoria  and  Peru,  and  the  towns  on 
the  river  furnish  a  good  market  for  grain,  which  is  sent 
to  Peoria  and  Chicago.  The  Spoon  River,  from  the  west, 
and  the  Sangamon,  from  the  east,  are  the  chief  branches 
of  the  lower  Illinois,  draining  rich  prairie  lands  which  are 
among  the  best-settled  portions  of  the  state.  Springfield, 
near  the  Sangamon,  is  noted  as  the  home  of  Lincoln,  as 
the  capital  of  the  state,  and  as  a  beautiful  city. 

The  lower  valley  of  the  Illinois  River  is  pretty  heavily 
timbered.  For  thirty  miles  before  joining  the  Mississippi 
it  flows  parallel  to  that  stream,  separated  only  by  a  narrow 
ridge  a  few  miles  across.  About  fourteen  miles  above 
Alton  it  joins  the  great  current  of  the  Mississippi,  here 
about  a  mile  wide,  and  rolls  on  a  few  miles  farther  to 
mingle  with  the  yellow  waters  of  the  Missouri. 

The  Illinois  River  is  an  important  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  waters  of  Lake  Michigan  and  the  Mississippi 
River.  The  canal  makes  this  connection  complete,  and 
the  low,  narrow  watershed  between  Lake  Michigan  and 
the  Des  Plaines  renders  this  artificial  waterway  easy. 
When  a  ship-canal  is  finished  between  Chicago  and  the 
Mississippi,  large  vessels  may  b^  able  to  sail  up  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  down  the  Mississippi,  making  Chicago  a 
harbor  that  can  be  approached  from  the  sea  on  either  side. 
In  winter  time  the  river  and  canal  are  frozen  up  and  navi- 
gation is  stopped  for  some  four  or  five  months. 


96  TYPE  STUDIES 

The  Illinois  is  useful  not  only  for  drainage,  to  remove 
surplus  waters,  for  water-power  in  mills  and  factories,  for 
commerce,  and  as  a  means  of  connection  between  larger 
waters,  but  also  for  fishing  which  is  carried  on  to  quite  an 
extent  near  the  river  towns. 

The  great  irregular  valley  of  the  Mississippi  is  a  still 
wider  trough  toward  which  the  Illinois  and  other 
streams  send  their  winding  waters.  A  closer  study  of 
the  rivers  of  Illinois  will  show  that  they  all  move  in 
the  same  general  direction.  The  Rock,  the  Illinois,  the 
Kaskaskia,  the  Big  Muddy,  and  the  Wabash,  all  move  in 
the  same  general  course  and  all  mingle  their  waters  finally 
as  they  pass  Cairo.  Each  of  the  smaller  rivers  has  its 
secondary  slopes,  but  the  general  slope  of  the  whole  state, 
with  slight  exception  at  Chicago,  is  toward  the  southwest.' 
(It  is  certainly  advisable  at  this  point  to  makea^and  map 
of  Illinois,  laying  out  the  valleys,  slopes,  cities,  canals,  etc. 
If  there  is  loose  soil  in  the  playground,  it  may  be  made 
on  a  large  scale  and  to  good  advantage  in  the  open  air. 
It  is  well  also  for  the  children  to  draw  upon  the  blackboard 
quickly  an  outline  map  of  Illinois,  aiming  chiefly  at  correct 
proportion  in  the  parts.) 

If  we  now  turn  to  a  large  physical  wall  map  of  the 
United  States,  it  will  supply  a  useful  lesson  at  map  inter- 
pretation to  examine  the  neighboring  states,  such  as 
Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Indiana,  and  Minnesota,  to 
hunt  up  the  principal  rivers,  determine  their  slopes,  com- 
pare them  in  size  with  the  Illinois  River,  and  fix  their 
names,  together  with  those  of  the  states  through  which 
they  flow.  Such  an  examination  will  reveal  several  states 
that  have  a  river  of  the  same  name,  dividing  it  into  nearly 
equal  portions,  as  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Missouri,  and  Min- 


THE  ILLINOIS  RIVEE 


97 


nesota.  Then  the  Wabash  in  Indiana,  the  Des  Moines  in 
Iowa,  the  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Arkansas,  bear  a 
relation  to  their  respective  states  similar  to  that  in  Illinois. 
This  examination  and  comparison  of  rivers  will  lead  to  a 
perception  of  the  chief  slopes  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  on 
a  large  scale.  In 
fact,  we  can  afford 
to  carry  this  compari- 
son a  little  further. 
The  Illinois  and 
Michigan  Canal,  con- 
necting Lake  Michi- 
gan with  the  Illinois 
River,  is  similar  to  a 
canal  at  the  portage 
of  the  Wisconsin  and 
Fox.  In  Indiana,  the 
Wabash  and  Mau- 
mee ;  in  Ohio,  the 
Miami,  Scioto,  and 
Muskingum,  are  all 
connected  with  Lake 
Erie  by  canal.  These 
are  the  artificial  water 
connections  between 
the  Mississippi  and 
the  St.  Lawrence  system.  Like  the  Illinois,  the  lower 
waters  of  streams  such  as  the  Wisconsin,  Des  Moines, 
and  Scioto,  are  navigable,  while  their  upper  valleys  are  the 
favored  courses  of  canals  and  useful  for  water-power  and 
manufacturing.  The  fulness  and  detail  with  which  the 
upper  and  lower  Illinois  have  been  described  is  justified 


ILLINOIS  RIVER 

AMD 

ILLINOIS  AND  MICHIGAN 
CANAL 


Fig.  35. 


98  TYPE  STUDIES 

because  the  canal  with  its  locks,  the  dams  and  water- 
wheels,  the  cities,  bridges,  and  steamboats,  the  bluffs, 
bayous,  and  bottom-lands  of  the  one  interpret  those  of 
all  the  others.  In  several  ways  the  Illinois  River  becomes 
a  standard  of  comparison  by  which  we  measure  other 
streams,  and  more  quickly  understand  their  size  and  im- 
portance. In  our  later  study  of  rivers  in  other  parts  of 
the  United  States  and  of  the  world,  we  shall  have  frequent 
occasion  to  revert  to  the  home  stream  as  a  representative 
and  standard  to  illustrate  slack-water  navigation,  bluff 
scenery,  water-power,  steamboat  traffic  and  drainage, 
slope,  and  the  erosive  power  of  waters.  In  comparing 
the  rivers  of  the  surrounding  states  with  the  Illinois,  we 
definitely  locate  these  states  and  the  rivers  that  drain  them, 
fixing  the  names  by  such  drill  exercises  as  may  be  neces- 
sary. The  power  to  interpret  the  surface  features  as 
indicated  by  a  map  should  certainly  be  gained  in  this 
exercise. 


THE   PRAIRIES 

Illinois  has  been  called  the  "  prairie"  state,  although 
other  states,  like  Iowa,  are  perhaps  still  better  deserving 
of  the  name.  When  the  white  men  first  explored  this 
state  they  followed  the  rivers  in  canoes,  and  as  the  bluffs, 
bottom-lands,  and  ravines  near  the  streams  were  covered 
largely  with  forests,  it  seemed  to  them  much  like  a  wooded 
country.  But  when  they  climbed  the  bluffs  to  hunt  the 
herds  of  deer  and  buffalo,  they  saw  great  stretches  of 
beautiful  rolling  or  level  lands,  treeless  for  miles,  and  cov- 
ered in  summer  with  a  rich  wild  grass  and  bright  with  thou- 
sands of  wild  flowers.  These  waving  prairies  were  the 
favorite  hunting-grounds  of  the  Indians  and  were  grazed 
upon  by  herds  of  buffalo  and  deer.  The  prairies  were  dot- 
ted over  with  ponds,  which,  in  their  season,  were  covered 
with  wild  geese  and  ducks.  The  prairie-chicken,  wild 
turkey,  and  other  smaller  game  were  also  abundant.  In  the 
strips  of  timber,  bear,  wildcat,  and  squirrel  were  hunted. 
The  Indians  depended  for  food  largely  upon  their  regular 
hunting  seasons  and  the  early  white  explorers  and  settlers 
supplied  themselves  in  the  same  way.  Many  old  settlers 
are  still  living  in  Illinois  who  have  seen  the  deer  quite 
abundant  on  the  prairies  of  our  state. 

This  prairie  region,  though  beautiful  and  attractive  as  a 
hunting-ground,  was  not  deemed  of  much  value  by  the  early 
settlers.  The  prairie  often  extended  for  ten  or  twenty 
miles  between  the  strips  of  timber. 

The  prairie  which  lies  north  and  east  of  Bloomington, 

99 


100  TYPE  STUDIES 

Illinois,  is  a  good  type  of  these  treeless  plains.  Blooming- 
ton  was  built  on  the  edge  of  a  strip  of  timber  along  Sugai 
Creek.  To  the  north  the  rolling  prairie  extended  nine  or  ten 
miles  to  Hudson,  where  another  strip  of  woods  is  met.  A 
.  line  of  woods  about  six  miles  west  of  Bloomington  forms  the 
western  limit  of  this  prairie.  Near  Towanda,  about  nine 
miles  northeast  of  Bloomington,  the  woods  again  limit  the 
prairies  on  that  side.  The  main  body  of  this  prairie,  then, 
is  about  nine  miles  by  twelve  and  is  a  rolling  country  of 
great  beauty  and  richness.  In  the  summer  time  the  wild 
grass  grew  to  the  height  of  a  foot  or  a  foot  and  a  half, 
and,  before  the  prairies  were  broken  by  the  plough,  was 
often  mowed  and  the  hay  preserved.  In  the  fall  when  the 
grass  was  dry  and  some  hunting  party  had  set  fire  to  it,  the 
flames  would  sweep  across  the  prairies  with  a  great  roar 
and  cloud  of  smoke,  which  proved  fatal  to  animals  and 
men  in  their  track. 

The  early  settlers  of  Illinois  built  their  log  houses  near 
the  streams  in  the  strips  of  timber  that  bordered  them. 
The  wooded  parts  of  the  state  are  along  the  valleys  of  the 
rivers  and  smaller  streams.  Oak,  hickory,  walnut,  maple, 
and  other  hard-wood  trees  form  quite  extensive  forests  along 
the  rough  or  hilly  country  that  lies  close  to  the  river  val- 
leys. These  woods  furnished  the  early  settlers  with  mate- 
rials for  building  houses,  fences,  barns,  and  for  wagons  and 
other  farm  tools.  The  woods  also  supplied  an  abundance 
of  cheap  fuel,  while  game  was  hunted  among  the  groves. 
In  fact,  for  many  years  in  the  early  settlement  of  Illinois 
the  forest  districts  were  much  more  valuable  and  useful 
than  the  prairies. 

In  those  early  days  of  our  grandfathers  there  were  few 
wagon  roads,  to  say  nothing  of  railroads.     Many  of  the 


THE  PRAIRIES  101 

early  settlers  from  the  east  came  by  water,  some  by  way 
of  Lakes  Erie,  Huron,  and  Michigan  to  Chicago,  and  some 
by  way  of  the  Ohio,  Mississippi,  and  Illinois  rivers.  They 
loaded  their  household  goods  on  flatboats  or  steamboats 
at  Pittsburg,  passed  slowly  down  that  river  to  its  mouth, 
and  then  up  the  Mississippi  and  Illinois  to  Peoria,  or  some 
other  river  town,  from  which  they  secured  teams  to  carry 
their  goods  across  the  country  to  the  place  of  settlement. 

The  first  white  men  paid  little  attention  to  the  prairies. 
These  broad,  waving  meadows,  extending  often  for  many 
miles,  were  not  much  used,  except  for  hunting  and  pasture. 
But  the  prairie  lands  bordering  the  timber  were  often 
turned  into  fields  for  corn,  potatoes,  etc.  One  reason  why 
the  prairies  were  not  used  at  first  was  the  fact  that  not 
much  grain  was  raised  for  shipment.  There  were  no 
roads  or  good  markets  for  grain,  and  the  farmers  only 
raised  what  they  needed  for  family  use  or  for  feeding 
their  stock. 

But  the  soil  of  the  prairies  was  much  deeper  and  richer 
than  that  in  the  wooded  regions,  and  the  farmers  learned 
in  time  that  it  wa§  profitable  to  break  up  the  prairies  with 
the  plough  and  raise  grain,  instead  of  cutting  down  trees, 
grubbing  out  stumps,  and  clearing  the  land  for  fields 
among  the  forests. 

The  farmers,  however,  who  began  to  settle  upon  the 
prairies  had  a  hard  struggle  to  convert  them  into  good 
farms.  The  soil  of  the  prairie  had  never  been  turned  by 
the  plough.  It  was  matted  with  roots,  and  tough  and  hard 
to  break  or  turn.  Two  or  three  yokes  of  oxen  hitched  to  a 
single  plough  were  necessary  to  break  up  this  old  sod  before 
the  first  effort  at  planting  and  cultivating  could  be  made. 
The  first  season  not  much  was  raised,  as  the   sod   and 


'i(12  TYPE  STUDIES 

matted  roots  must  rot  before  a  good  soil  was  formed. 
But  with  the  second  year's  ploughing  the  soil  was  rich  and 
mellow,  and  yielded  abundant  crops.  It  was  necessary, 
also,  to  build  houses,  barns,  fences,  find  springs  or  wells, 
plant  orchards  and  small  fruit,  secure  stock  and  simple 
farm  tools  and  machines.  For  many  years  the  timber 
used  was  cut  and  brought  from  the  neighboring  woods,  or 
it  had  to  be  hauled  from  the  mills,  across  the  prairies. 

In  those  early  days  the  prairie  fires  were  a  cause  of 
danger  to  the  farmers.  Most  of  the  prairie,  of  course,  was 
unsettled,  and  when  fires  once  started  across  them  in 
autumn,  feeding  on  the  thick,  dry  grass,  with  a  brisk 
wind,  the  farmer  on  the  prairie  was  in  danger  of  losing 
houses,  stacks,  and  stables  —  in  fact,  everything  which  he 
had  worked  so  long  and  hard  to  secure.  Various  devices 
were  used  by  the  farmers  to  prevent  such  losses.  In  the 
fall,  when  the  grain  had  been  stacked,  he  would  burn 
away  the  grass  around  the  stacks  and  farm-yards,  so  that 
the  autumn  fires  could  not  come  near  the  stables,  stacks, 
and  houses,  or  he  would  plough  up  a  circle  of  ground 
about  the  stacks  and  stables  for  the  same  purpose.  Some- 
times, when  the  prairie  fires  came  unexpectedly  upon 
farmers  who  were  unprepared,  there  were  exciting  efforts 
to  beat  out  the  fire  and  save  the  houses  and  grain. 

Nearly  every  farmer  who  settled  upon  the  prairies 
desired  to  surround  his  farm-house  with  groves  and 
orchards.  Groves  of  cottonwood,  maple,  walnut,  willow 
and  orchards  of  apple,  cherry,  and  plum  were  planted. 
Gardens,  with  small  fruit,  were  started,  large  fields  and 
pastures  fenced,  regular  roads  were  laid  out,  and  bridges 
built ;  in  fact,  so  many  changes  were  made  in  the  whole 
appearance  of  the  country  that  the  Indians  would  scarcely 


THE  PRAIBIES  103 

recognize  their  old  hunting-grounds  if  they  could  return 
to  them.  Standing  upon  some  high  point  or  knoll 
on  the  prairies,  where  the  eye  can  travel  many  miles  in 
any  direction,  instead  of  a  waving  sea  of  grass,  one  now 
sees  great  rustling  fields  of  corn,  green  meadows,  yellow 
fields  of  oats  and  wheat  as  they  ripen  in  the  summer  tide, 
the  whole  country  dotted  with  groves  and  orchards, 
almost  hiding  the  farm-houses  and  barns,  and  tall  windmills 
towering  above  the  tree-tops  busily  pumping  water  for 
the  cattle  or  grinding  grain.  In  a  distant  village  are  seen 
the  church  spires,  the  tall  grain  elevators,  and  a  railroad 
train,  moving  across  the  country,  is  carrying  the  produce 
of  the  prairies  to  distant  regions. 

The  demand  for  trees  for  transplanting  in  groves  and 
orchards  upon  the  prairies  has  been  so  great  that  large 
nurseries  are  found  in  many  parts  of  the  state,  where 
thousands  of  seedlings  ar'e  raised,  and  fruit  trees  grafted  and 
grown  for  shipping  and  for  transplanting.  Evergreens, 
maples,  fruit  trees,  grape-vines,  berry  plants,  rose  bushes, 
hedge  plants,  and  many  other  ornamental  and  useful  trees 
and  plants  have  been  abundantly  supplied  to  the  farms  and 
gardens  of  the  prairie  regions.  The  nursery  business  is 
still  a  very  important  and  extensive  occupation  in  Illinois 
and  other  prairie  states. 

Many  explanations  have  been  attempted  touching  the 
cause  of  the  treeless  condition  of  these  extensive  plains 
in  Illinois  and  in  the  neighboring  states.  One  reason 
assigned  is  that  the  rainfall  is  less  in  the  prairie  belt  than 
in  the  forest  country  farther  east.  Then  the  prairie  fires 
which  were  accustomed  to  sweep  the  dry,  grassy  plains 
destroyed  largely  the  young  tree  plants.  A  third'  reason 
offered  is  that  the  black,  close  soil  of  the  prairies^  is  not 


104  TYPE  STUDIES 

favorable  in  a  natural  state  to  the  sprouting  of  young 
trees,  but  in  the  hilly  slopes  near  the  streams  where  a  clay 
and  sandy  soil  prevails  forests  are  common.  It  is  sup- 
posed by  some  that  the  prairies  were  originally  wholly 
covered  with  shallow  ponds  and  lakes,  and  as  the  water 
gradually  drained  off  through  the  sloughs,  the  marshy 
edges  of  these  ponds  and  lakes  were  unfavorable  to  the 
growth  of  trees.  Whatever  the  causes  may  have  been, 
extensive  plains  in  this  region  remained  Avith  no  vegetable 
covering  but  rich  grasses  and  wild  flowers. 

The  soil  of  the  prairies  is,  in  most  places,  a  rich,  black 
mould  from  one  to  two  feet  in  depth,  and  produced  by  the 
decay  of  vegetable  growth.  Sometimes  it  is  possible  to 
plough  for  miles  without  touching  sand  or  gravel.  In  spite 
of  heavy  crops  the  soil  keeps  its  strength  and  by  deeper 
subsoil  ploughing,  and  by  proper  rotation  of  crops,  it 
continues  to  yield  abundantly.  The  rainfalls  are  also  so 
regular  that  a  total  failure  of  crops  has  not  been  known  in 
the  sixty  years  of  settlement,  although  some  seasons  are  too 
dry  and  others  too  wet  for  good  agriculture.  It  would  be 
difficult,  however,  to  find  a  country  with  a  richer  soil,  or 
a  more  regular  succession  of  good  harvests. 

Many  low  places  among  the  plains  were  once  covered 
with  ponds,  sloughs,  and  extensive  marshes,  sometimes  ex- 
tending over  thousands  of  acres  where  only  a  coarse,  rank 
slough  grass  grew.  These  wet  places  could  not  be  tilled 
and  were  of  but  little  use.  But  as  the  prairie  lands  were 
settled  up  and  converted  into  farms,  the  ponds  were 
drained  by  open  ditches  or  tiles  which  were  used  to  draw 
off  the  sluggish  waters.  Some  of  these  marshy  lands 
cover  whole  townships,  while  the  ponds  and  lower  places  on 
nearly  every  farm  are  benefited  by  tile  drains.     By  meons 


THE  PRAIRIES  105 

of  this  system  of  artificial  drainage,  the  swamp-land  has 
been  brought  under  cultivation,  and  these  are  found  to  be 
the  richest  and  most  productive  districts  of  the  state. 

The  business  of  ditching  and  draining  the  prairies 
has  been,  therefore,  an  important  part  of  the  growth  of 
the  state.  Ditching  machines  have  been  extensively 
used.  The  manufacture  of  tile  for  drainage  has  been 
carried  on  upon  a  large  scale.  The  big  round  kilns 
used  for  burning  the  clay,  and  the  great  stacks  of  red 
and  dark  tiles  of  different  sizes,  are  frequently  seen  in 
the  towns  of  the  prairie  region  along  the  railroad  lines. 

One  serious  difficulty,  common  to  all  the  prairie  re- 
gions of  Illinois,  is  the  "bottomless  roads"  during  a 
good  share  of  the  winter  and  spring  seasons.  The  rich, 
sticky  soil  of  the  prairies  holds  moisture  only  too  well, 
and  during  two  or  three  months  of  the  year  the  high- 
ways are  almost  impassable  with  loads.  Ditching  the 
roads  along  the  sides  and  throwing  up  the  dirt  in  the 
centre  does  not  remove  this  difficulty,  and  there  is  so 
little  gravel  or  other  material  suitable  for  road  building 
that,  as  yet,  no  great  improvement  has  been  made. 

After  1850,  railroads  began  to  .be  built  across  the  prai- 
ries, bringing  pine  lumber  and  other  materials  to  the 
farmers  from  Chicago  and  the  lake  regions,  and  making 
it  possible  to  ship  corn,  wheat,  cattle,  and  hogs  to  Chicago 
and  other  cities.  Coal-mines  were  also  opened,  and  coal 
was  much  used  upon  the  prairies  instead  of  wood.  Before 
the  days  of  railroads,  it  was  very  difficult  for  the  prairie 
farmers  to  get  their  grain  and  live  stock  to  market. 
They  sometimes  hauled  wheat  and  salted  meat  a  hundred 
miles  to  market  in  wagons.  Since  1850,  therefore,  the 
settlement  of  the  prairies  has  been  very  rapid.     Even  as 


106  TYPE  STUDIES 

late  as  1870,  however,  there  were  many  prairies  in  Illinois 
that  were  unfenced  and  still  covered  with  wild  grass,  upon 
which  any  one  could  freely  drive  his  herds.  But  since 
then  most  of  the  prairie  districts  have  been  fenced  and 
ploughed,  and  are  now  yielding  large  crops  of  grain  or 
serving  as  pasturage. 

The  description  we  have  given  of  the  prairies  of  Illi- 
nois will  answer,  also,  for  most  of  the  prairie  states. 
Northern  Missouri,  the  whole  of  Iowa,  and  southern 
Minnesota  are  very  much  like  the  prairie  lands  of  Illi- 
nois. The  eastern  half  of  Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas, 
also,  belong  to  tiie  prairie  belt,  and  are  corn,  grain,  and 
stock  producing  regions  like  Illinois.  The  northern  part 
of  Indiana  and  the  southern  part  of  Wisconsin  show  ex- 
tensive prairies.  There  is  no  fixed  line  between  these 
prairies  and  the  arid  plains  of  the  west  in  Dakota,  Kan- 
sas, and  Nebraska.  The  one  hundredth  meridian  may  be 
taken  as  the  line  that  separates  the  region  of  sufficient 
rainfall  on  the  east  from  the  arid  plains  on  the  west. 
West  of  the  Mississippi,  therefore,  the  prairies  have  a 
gentle  slope  upward  till  they  are  gradually  changed  into 
the  grazing  and  ranch  lands  of  western  Kansas  and  Ne- 
braska, where  there  is  not  enough  rainfall  with  which  to 
raise  crops. 

Before  leaving  the  prairie  region  it  is  advisable  to 
locate  the  chief  rivers  which  drain  the  prairie  belt,  the 
direction  of  their  slopes,  the  states  and  parts  of  states 
included,  and  perhaps  a  few  of  the  chief  cities  or  trade 
centres  which  lie  within  this  district.  It  will  be  of  inter- 
est, also,  to  notice  how  far  the  coal  area,  studied  in  the 
preceding  topic,  lies  within  the  prairie  belt,  amd  to  what 
extent  the  use  of  coal  on  the  prairies  is  rendered  easy. 


THE  PRAIRIES  107 

The  definite  location  of  the  prairie  states  on  a  wall  map, 
and  the  drawing  of  the  states  in  outline  will  aid  the  fixing 
of  these  facts. 

We  shall  find  later,  in  discussing  corn  and  live  stock, 
lumbering,  pine-  and  hard-wood  forests,  that  much  addi- 
tional light  will  be  thrown  upon  the  prairie  country,  and 
the  comparison  of  it  with  the  forested  regions  will  help  to 
give  a  much  more  definite  knowledge  of  the  surface,  com- 
merce, and  productions  of  those  parts  of  our  country. 


THE  PINERIES  AND  LUMBERING 

lij"  northern  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  where  the  for- 
ests of  white  pine  abound,  the  short,  cold  days  of  winter 
are  the  busiest  season  of  the  year.  The  ground  is  usually 
covered  with  deep  snow  which  contrasts  with  the  dark 
green  of  the  forests.  But  the  branches  are  often  loaded 
with  snow  and  ice  so  that  Jack  Frost  is  monarch  of  all. 
In  the  autumn,  every  large  lumber  firm  which  has  pine 
lands  in  this  region  prepares  to  make  up  a  company  of 
lumbermen  to  send  into  the  forests  to  cut  down  and  pre- 
pare the  logs  for  the  springtime.  The  foreman  of  the 
lumber  company  scours  the  river  towns,  hiring  men  for 
the  winter  campaign.  As  soon  as  they  have  spent  all 
their  earnings  in  the  boarding-houses  and  hotels,  the  men 
are  ready  to  pack  up  for  the  logging  camp.  Sixty  men 
make  up  a  logging  camp  of  average  size.  Such  a  camp  is 
located  in  the  midst  of  the  woods,  near  the  bank  of  some 
stream,  which,  when  the  melting  snows  and  rains  of  spring 
come,  can  float  down  to  the  far-away  mills  the  great  piles 
of  logs  which  the  men  have  collected  upon  its  banks  dur- 
ing the  winter  season. 

We  will  describe  such  a  lumber  camp  on  a  branch  of  the 
Upper  Mississippi  above  Minneapolis.  (See  Scribners 
Magazine,  1893.) 

The  camp  consists  of  several  buildings  "  made  of  round 
logs  and  roofed  and  floored,  generally,  with  rough  boards. 
There  is  a  men's  camp,  where  the  men  lounge  and  sleep; 

108 


THE  PINERIES  AND  LUMBERING 


109 


a  cook-camp,  which  is  a  large  dining  room  and  kitchen 
combined,  and  a  large  barn  where  the  hay  is  stored  for  the 


Fig.  36. 

A  group  of  small  pictures  to  illustrate  lumbering.  A  and  B  show  logging 
camps ;  in  D  logs  are  being  drawn  to  the  frozen  stream ;  E  and  F  are  pic- 
tures of  two  log  jams ;  and  C  shows  a  vessel  loading  lumber  from  the  piles 
of  boards  on  the  wharf  near  the  sawmill. 


horses  and  mules  ;  a  granary,  a  blacksmith's  shop,  and  an 
office  for  the  foreman,  with  an  extra  bed  for  the  proprietor. 


110  TYPE  STUDIES 

The  men's  camp  for  sixty  men  and  the  cook's  camp  are 
each  about  sixty  by  twenty  feet.  The  men  sleep  in  rough 
wooden  bunks,  ranged  in  double  tiers  along  the  sides  of 
the  camp.  Formerly  they  lay  on  boughs  or  on  hay  with 
a  single  blanket  spread  over  it,  but  in  these  days  they  have 
their  bedticks  stuffed  with  hay  or  straw."  A  big  fireplace 
used  to  add  cheerfulness  to  the  great  barnlike  room,  but 
now  large  stoves  are  used. 

There  is  much  work  to  be  done  about  the  camp,  in  the 
woods,  and  along  the  river,  before  the  actual  work  of 
felling  the  trees  and  hauling  the  logs  begins.  A  gang  of 
men  is  sent  along  the  river  for  many  miles  to  clear  it  of 
snags.  It  is  a  heavy  piece  of  work,  wading  into  the  icy 
waters,  loosening  the  stumps  and  logs  and  dragging  them 
out  with  horses.  The  men  camp  on  the  banks  at  night 
and  wade  the  streams  and  labor  during  the  day  for  weeks 
at  a  time.  But  at  last  the  river  is  clear  for  the  spring 
freshet.  Early  in  the  fall,  road-makers  are  sent  out  to  the 
lumber  camp  to  lay  out  and  prepare  smooth,  well-graded 
roads  along  which  the  heavy  sledges,  with  horses,  may 
safely  haul  the  great  loads  of  logs  to  the  banking  grounds 
along  the  river.  The  making  of  these  roads  is  a  very  care- 
ful piece  of  business.  "  Along  the  lines  which  have  been 
carefully  laid  out,  the  road-makers  fell  the  timber,  cutting 
it  at  the  roots  so  that  no  stumps  remain,  log  out  the  road 
at  its  proper  width,  and  then,  with  plough  and  scraper, 
mattock  and  shovel,  make  it  nearly  as  level  and  quite  as 
solid  as  a  railroad  grade.  The  road-bed  is  sunk  a  little 
below  the  level.  It  is  ploughed  out  after  each  snow-storm 
with  great  snow-ploughs,  and  sprinklers  are  run  during 
freezing  weather,  making  a  solid  bed  of  ice  over  which 
enormous  loads  can  be  hauled."     The  log  sleighs  are  from 


THE  PINERIES  AND  LUMBERING  111 

ten  to  fourteen  feet  wide  on  the  cross-beams,  and  one  or 
two  teams  are  hitched  to  them.  Of  course,  before  begin- 
ning the  winter's  work,  a  hirge  supply  of  food  and  mate- 
rials must  be  hauled  to  the  camp.  Hay  and  grain  for  the 
horses^  tools,  sleds,  blacksmith's  materials,  besides  food, 
clothing,  and  medicines  for  the  men  are  provided. 

When  finally  the  winter's  work  begins  in  earnest,  a  log- 
ging camp  is  a  busy  place.  Squads  of  men  are  sent  out  to 
fell  the  trees ;  the  teamsters  are  up  early  to  feed  and  groom 
their  horses,  so  as  to  haul  as  many  huge  loads  as  possible 
to  the  river  bank ;  the  cook  and  his  helpers  are  busj 
almost  day  and  night,  preparing  and  cooking  food  for  the 
hungry  men.  The  blacksmith  is  shoeing  horses  and  re- 
pairing sleighs  and  tools.  The  foreman  keeps  track  of  all 
the  men,  their  time  and  amount  of  work,  and  must  see 
that  every  man  earns  his  wages. 

The  men  are  out  early  at  the  trees,  working  in  pairs  or 
groups,  and  engaged  in  a  generous  rivalry  to  see  who  can 
bring  down  the  most  trees  and  logs.  The  trees  are  now 
generally  sawed  down  instead  of  cut  with  the  axe.  By 
driving  a  wedge  into  the  saw-cut,  a  tree  can  be  thrown 
into  any  desired  direction.  When  the  tree  is  down,  it  is 
divided  off  into  standard  lengths  and  sawed  up.  Then  the 
logs  are  ready  to  be  taken  to  the  skids.  "  The  skid- way 
consists  of  two  logs  about  ten  feet  apart,  laid  perpendicular 
to  the  log  road  and  well  blocked  up,  upon  which  a  tier  of 
logs  is  placed  ready  to  be  loaded  on  the  sleighs  to  go  to 
the  banking  ground."  To  get  the  logs  to  the  skid-way, 
cattle  were  once  much  used,  but  now  horses.  Sometimes 
the  logs  are  "  snaked  "  along,  being  held  at  the  end  by  a 
grappling  hook  called  "  skidding  tongs  "  ;  but  the  big  logs 
are  dragged  by  a  team,  with  a  rude  sled  for  one  end  of  the 


112  TYPE  STUDIES 

log  to  rest  upon.  From  the  skids,  where  the  logs  have 
been  piled  up  by  the  loaders  into  lofty  tiers,  they  are  rolled 
on  to  the  sleighs.  "  When  it  comes  to  loading  these  logs 
on  the  sleighs,  judgment  and  strength  and  skill  are  equally 
required,  the  object  being  to  get  as  large  a  load  as 
possible."  The  logs  have  to  be  well  balanced  and  firmly 
laid,  or  they  slip  and  slide  back.  Sometimes  the  load  is 
piled  up  as  high  as  a  load  of  hay,  and  contains  many  tons 
of  logs.  The  teamsters  then  drive  carefully  along  the 
smooth  road.  They  pass  men  whose  business  it  is  to  watch 
the  road,  fill  up  low  places,  smooth  the  track,  and  thus 
prevent  the  sleighs  from  sliding  out  or  toppling  over.  At 
the  banking  grounds,  again,  great  skill  and  strength  are 
needed  in  piling  the  logs  on  the  edge  of  the  stream,  where 
they  may  easily  roll  into  the  water  in  the  spring. 

Deep  and  lasting  snows  are  of  great  importance  to  the 
lumbermen.  In  some  winters,  when  there  is  little  snow 
but  much  rain  and  slush,  the  skids  are  full  of  logs,  but  the 
sleighs  cannot  run.  Many  thousands  of  dollars'  worth  of 
logs  may  be  piled  up,  but  cannot  be  brought  to  the  stream. 
If  the  weather  is  cold,  the  sprinklers  are  set  at  work  and 
an  ice  road  is  made,  over  which  the  loads  will  glide.  In 
many  cases  railroads  have  been  built  into  the  logging- 
regions  and  the  logs  hauled  out  by  steam  power  to  the 
banking  grounds.  The  snow,  then,  is  of  great  value  to 
the  lumbermen  both  for  skidding  and  hauling  the  logs  and 
for  melting  in  springtime  so  as  to  flood  the  stream  and 
carry  off  the  logs. 

In  the  evening,  after  the  hard  day's  work,  the  camp  is 
a  lively  scene.  The  hard- worked  men  have  a  hearty  rel- 
ish for  substantial  food,  and  they  get  it  in  abundance.  "At 
dinner  there  is  a  hearty  bean  or  vegetable  soup,  and  gener- 


THE  PINERIES  AND  LUMBERING  113 

ally  fresh  beef.  For  every  meal  there  are  pork  and  beans, 
corned  beef,  potatoes,  turnips,  ^cabbage,  and  sauer-kraut, 
plenty  of  sugar,  tea,  coffee,  molasses,  gingerbread,  dried 
apple  pie,  mince  pies  from  mince-meat  bought  by  the  half 
ton,  sauce,  and  butter.  With  sixty  men,  a  barrel  of  flour 
must  be  converted  into  bread  in  about  two  days.  After 
supper  there  is  rest  and  entertainment.  Along  each  side 
of  the  camp  is  a  seat  made  of  a  thick,  hewn  slab,  for  which 
the  bunk  frames  furnish  a  back.     When  evening  comes. 


Fig.  37. 
Floating  lumber  on  a  stream  in  Wisconsin. 

ranged  along  this  seat,  or  lounging  in  the  bunks,  the  crew 
of  men  become  a  social  club.  Then  jokes  and  tales  go 
round  and  songs  are  sung,  and  if  there  is  a  fiddler  in  the 
camp  dancing  begins."  But  the  men  must  soon  get  to  bed 
so  as  to  be  up  betimes  for  the  morning's  work. 

There  are  many  dangers  and  accidents,  and  the  reckless 
boldness  of  the  men- in  handling  logs  leads  to  broken 
limbs  and  mangled  bodies.  In  piling  the  logs  on  the  skids 
and  at  the  banking  grounds  there  is  special  skill  and 
strength  needed  to  prevent  serious  accidents,  but  the 
men  are  generous  in  helping  an  injured  comrade. 

With  the  melting  of  the  snow  and  ice  in  spring  comes 


114  TYPE  STUDIES 

the  breaking  in  and  driving  the  logs.  The  banking  ground 
swarms  with  men  armed  with  cant-hooks,  furnished  with 
strong  pikes  in  the  end,  who  attack  the  great  tiers  of  logs 
as  they  lay  piled  on  the  landing.  Teams  hitched  to  lines, 
at  the  end  of  which  is  a  hook  similar  to  a  cant-hook,  are 
used  to  loosen  the  "key log."  This  hook  is  driven  firmly 
into  a  log  at  the  foot  of  the  rollway,  and  as  it  is  pulled 
out  the  whole  face  of  the  rollway  topples  forward  into  the 
stream.  This  must  be  repeated  again  and  again.  Some- 
times while  men  and  horses  are  tugging  to  loose  the  log  it 
suddenly  gives  way,  and  down  thunders  the  towering  mass 
of  logs.  The  men  jump  for  safety  to  the  sides,  they  clamber 
and  keep  atop  of  the  plunging  logs,  they  jump  for  safety 
into  the  surging  stream,  coming  out  generally  unhurt. 

As  soon  as  the  logs  are  set  afloat,  two  crews  of  men  are 
sent  out  to  drive  the  logs  dow^n  the  stream  to  the  boom, 
where  they  are  collected  and  sorted.  The  forward  crew 
is  called  the  "  jam  crew,"  whose  business  it  is  to  string  the 
logs  along  the  river  so  as  not  to  let  them  pile  up  together 
and  get  wedged  in  the  stream.  Sometimes  the  body  of  logs 
lodges  in  a  narrow  passage  or  bend  of  the  river,  or  upon 
some  snag  or  sunken  tree-top,  and  the  logs  must  be  loos- 
ened and  again  set  afloat.  A  great  log  jam,  however,  is 
sometimes  formed  which  extends  for  miles  up  the  river. 
The  force  of  the  current  piles  up  the  logs  in  great  heaps, 
with  tree  trunks  projecting  in  every  direction.  To  break 
such  a  jam  and  send  the  loosened  logs  floating  down 
the  stream  is  difficult  and  dangerous.  A  rear  crew  fol- 
lows to  gather  up  the  stray  logs  that  have  become  stranded 
along  the  banks  and  bayous  when  the  water  was  high. 
With  cant-hooks  the  crew  of  men  roll  the  logs  into  the 
stream.     Many  logs  are  thus  left  high  and  dry  on  sand- 


THE  PINERIES  AND  LUMBERING 


115 


bars  and  in  the  bayous  by  sudden  floods  and  changes  in 
the  water.  These  must  all  be  rolled  down  to  the  stream 
and  set  afloat.  The  heavy  butt  logs  drag  in  the  low  water 
and  must  be  helped  over  shallow  places.  The  men  wade 
into  the  chill  waters,  ride  the  logs  over  the  rapids,  and 
are  wet  from  head  to  foot  most  of  the  time.  But  they  get 
double  wages  for  this  arduous  work  and  exposure. 

At  length  the   logs  from   different  companies  are  col- 
lected, many  acres  of  them  floating  along  the  bayous  and 


Fig.  38. 
A  sawmill  in  Wisconsin. 

river  banks,  above  the  boom.  The  logs  of  each  company 
are  marked  with  certain  letters,  and  so  squads  of  men 
from  the  different  companies  are  set  to  work  to  collect  the 
logs  of  each  company  by  themselves  and  form  large  rafts, 
which  are  then  sent  down  the  river  with  rafting  steamers  to 
the  sawmills.  Sometimes  three  or  four  hundred  men  are 
employed  at  a  boom  collecting  and  arranging  the  logs  for 
many  different  companies. 

The  sawmills  lower  down  the  stream  are  kept  very  busy 


116  TYPE  STUDIES 

in  summer  and  fall,  sawing  up  the  logs  and  stacking  the 
lumber.  Many  of  the  lumbermen  work  in  the  mills  in 
the  summer  and  in  the  logging  camps  in  the  winter.  The 
machinery  of  the  mills  at  Minneapolis  was  formerly  run 
by  the  water-power  of  the  falls,  but  now  most  of  the  large 
sawmills  are  above  the  falls  and  are  supplied  with  steam- 
engines.  The  sawdust  from  the  mills  is  the  only  fuel  used 
and  much  more  is  produced  than  is  needed  in  the  furnaces. 
The  mill  stands  on  the  river  bank  and  a  great  raft  of  logs  lies 
floating  in  the  water  below,  from  which  they  are  drawn  up 
singly  into  the  mill  by  means  of  an  endless  chain  with  hooks. 
A  hundred  men  may  be  employed  in  a  single  mill  and  the 
circular  and  band  saws,  and  especially  the  gang  saws,  turn 
out  great  batches  of  lumber  in  rapid  succession. 

Above  the  falls  at  Minneapolis  are  many  of  these  large 
mills  with  extensive  lumber-yards,  where  vast  quantities 
of  lumber  are  stacked,  while  in  the  waters  of  the  river  are 
great  rafts  of  logs  waiting  for  the  saws.  In  the  same 
yard  with  the  sawmill  is  often  found  a  planing-mill, 
where  the  rough  lumber  is  planed  and  worked  up  into 
window-frames,  casings,  doors,  and  other  finishing  lumber. 

Most  of  the  logs  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  are  worked 
up  in  the  sawmills  at  Minneapolis.  Quite  a  number  of 
the  stray  logs  go  over  the  falls  and  are  received  by  mills  in 
the  cities  lower  down  the  river.  *  Minneapolis  is  therefore 
a  very  important  centre  for  the  manufacture  and  shipment 
of  pine  lumber.  The  great  prairies  of  western  Minne- 
sota and  Dakota  call  for  immense  quantities  of  pine  lum- 
ber for  use  in  house  building,  for  barns,  bridges,  fencing, 
and  many  other  things.  The  railroads  reaching  westward 
from  Minneapolis  are  largely  engaged  in  hauling  this 
lumber  to  the  western  towns.     The  mills  at  Minneapolis 


THE  PINERIES  AND  LUMBERING  117 

are  constantly  taking  orders  from  these  western  cities, 
and  the  success  of  their  business  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  lumber  needed  on  the  farms  and  in  the  towns 
of  the  prairie  regions.  A  failure  of  crops  in  Dakota  is 
therefore  a  serious  drawback  to  tlie  lumber  merchants  of 
Minneapolis. 

It  is  clear,  then,  that  the  pine  forests  of  northern 
Minnesota  are  quite  important  to  the  farmers  of  the 
prairie  regions.  But  the  winter  snows  in  the  pineries,  the 
spring  floods  in  the  rivers,  the  sawmills  at  Minneapolis, 
and  the  long  railroad  lines  stretching  westward,  are  neces- 
sary to  bring  the  prairies  and  pineries  into  close  and  cheap 
communication.  The  lumbermen  in  their  camps  must  also 
receive  their  flour,  corn,  and  grain,  besides  beef  and  other 
meats,  from  the  farmers  of  the  prairie  districts.  Thus  the 
exchanges  take  place. 

Having  seen  the  movement  of  logs  from  the  lumber 
camps  along  the  Upper  Mississippi  to  Minneapolis,  and  the 
distribution  of  lumber  from  that  point  westward,  we  may 
expand  this  idea  to  observe  how  far  it  is  repeated  in  other 
states.  There  are  several  large  lumber  streams  that  flow 
into  the  Mississippi  below  St.  Paul,  as  the  St.  Croix, 
Chippewa,  Black,  and  Wisconsin.  They  send  thousands 
of  logs  into  the  Mississippi,  which  are  sawed  up  at  the 
great  sawmills  at  Wabasha,  Red  Wing,  Winona,  La  Crosse, 
Davenport,  etc.  In  fact  nearly  all  the  towns,  large  and 
small,  along  the  Mississippi  from  St.  Paul  to  St.  Louis, 
are  lumber  towns  with  saw  and  planing  mills,  and  rail- 
roads stretching  westward  over  which  the  lumber  is 
shipped  into  Iowa,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  etc.  The  leading  in- 
dustry in  nearly  all  these  towns  is  lumbering  and  milling. 
Again,  if  we  look  toward  eastern  Wisconsin  and  northern 


118 


TYPE  STUDIES 


Michigan,  both  in  the  upper  and  lower  peninsula,  we  shall 
find  numerous  logging  rivers,  lined  with  lumber  camps 
and  sawmills.  Thus  it  is  that  such  immense  quantities  of 
lumber  reach  Milwaukee,  Chicago,  and  other  lake  ports  to 
be  shipped  west  and  southwest  into  the  prairie  region. 
Chicago   is  one  of   the  greatest   lumber   markets   in   the 


Fig.  39. 

Map  showing  the  regions  from  which  considerable  timber  is  now  being 
obtained. 


world  because  of  the  ship  loads  of  lumber  that  come  down 
to  Lake  Michigan  and  to  other  lakes  from  the  lumber 
streams  in  the  pineries.  Bay  City,  Detroit,  and  other  cities 
of  the  lower  peninsula  are  important  centres  for  the  lumber 
business.  If  we  care  to  extend  this  inquiry  we  shall  find 
that  that  part  of  Canada  which  borders  the  Lakes,  the  St. 
Lawrence,  and  its  tributaries,  is  all  a  region  of  pineries  and 
lumbering  similar  to  that  in  Minnesota.  Later,  in  our 
study  of  the  Eastern  States,  we  shall  be  interested  to  see 


THE  PINEBIES  AND  LUMBERING  119 

that  northern  New  York,  along  Lake  Champlam  and  the 
Hudson,  and  the  rivers  of  Maine,  are  the  centres  of  a 
lumber  business  almost  identical  with  that  of  the  upper 
Mississippi. 

After  such  an  inquiry  as  is  just  suggested,  we  are  pre- 
pared to  fix  the  region  of  pine  forests  in,  at  least,  Minnesota, 
Wisconsin,  and  Michigan.  In  doing  so  we  have  an 
opportunity  of  locating  those  states  more  carefully,  also 
the  chief  tributaries  of  the  upper  Mississippi  and  of  the 
lake  region,  and  those  cities  which  are  important  centres 
of  the  lumber  trade  and  their  facilities  for  this  traffic. 

It  may  be  well  at  this  point  to  compare  more  carefully  the 
prairie  regions  already  treated  with  the  pine  forests  in  re- 
gard to  soil,  climate,  and  general  appearance  of  the  country. 
The  contrast  is  a  striking  one.  These  tall,  gloomy  pineries, 
rooted  in  a  light,  sandy  soil,  which  is  good  for  little  else, 
contrast  strongly  with  the  black  mould  of  the  prairies 
which  in  its  natural  state  supports  only  grasses  and  wild 
flowers.  And  yet  these  two  regions  are  very  necessary 
to  each  other.  The  study  of  the  mines  in  the  lake  regions 
will  make  this  still  more  apparent. 


THE   UPPER   MISSISSIPPI 

The  great  river  above  its  junction  with  the  Missouri  is 
very  different  from  the  stream  belovr.  Above  St.  Louis 
the  river  is  lined  with  bluff's  on  both  sides.  It  is  a  mighty 
trough,  crooked  and  irregular,  winding  and  twisting  its 
way  southward  between  high  bluffs,  which  give  great  vari- 
ety of  scenery,  and,  being  crowned  with  waving  forests  or 
steep  with  bare  rocks,  furnish  splendid  panoramic  views 
as  we  pass  up  or  down  the  river  in  a  steamer.  Many  of 
the  cities  like  Quincy,  Davenport,  Clinton,  and  Dubuque 
have  a  commanding  position  on  the  slopes  and  bluffs  skirt- 
ing the  wide  valley.  Just  above  Davenport  and  Rock 
Island  the  river  passes  the  rapids  and  rocky  ledges  which 
have  made  navigation  at  this  point  difficult  and  dangerous. 
Here  also  is  the  island  which  the  government  has  made  into 
a  great  park  with  arsenals  and  a  military  station.  Between 
the  island  and  the  west  shore  the  government  has  built  a 
series  of  jetties  and  rocky  buttresses  in  the  channel  to  nar- 
row and  deepen  the  current.  But  during  low  water  in  July 
and  August  the  steamers  and  barges  have  difficulty  in  pass- 
ing these  rapids.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  river  has  broad 
bottom-lands,  often  well  wooded  and  furnishing  a  rich  soil 
for  corn  and  grain  when  not  flooded.  As  we  move  north- 
ward the  bluffs  gradually  grow  higher  and  more  command- 
ing, and  the  streams  coming  down  from  the  prairies  on 
either  side  must  cut  deeper  channels  in  order  to  reach  the 
river.     There  is  a  great  profusion  of   forests  along  the 

120 


THE   UPPER  MISSISSIPPI  121 

bluffs,  which  give  an  appearance  of  luxuriance  to  the  val- 
ley which  is  in  keeping  with  the  richness  of  the  country. 

Between  La  Crosse  and  Winona  the  river  valley  reaches 
its  grandest  proportions,  and  its  isolated  bluffs  appear 
almost  as  mountains. 

Before  leaving  Winona,  however,  it  is  well  to  take  a 
glance  at  the  panoramic  view  there  furnished.  Standing 
on  the  bridge  across  the  lake,  wliich  is  really  an  old  chan- 
nel of  the  river,  or  at  some  other  point  where  there  is  an 
unobstructed  view,  how  far  can  the  eye  travel  across  the 
valley  and  along  the  bluffs  on  either  side  ?  Perhaps  we 
shall  not  find  a  broader  or  more  interesting  sight  than  is 
spread  out  at  our  feet.  As  we  go  up  the  river  we  shall 
take  notice  if  anything  finer  than  this  appears.  At  Winona 
the  bluffs  on  the  south  and  west  sweep  round  in  a  great 
curve  like  an  immense  bow,  and  if  a  string  were  stretched 
from  Trempealeau  Mountain  in  the  southeast  to  the  corre- 
sponding hills  in  the  northwest,Winona  would  lie  inside,  i.e, 
between  the  bow  and  the  string.  The  bluffs  to  the  south- 
east look  like  distant  mountains,  while  the  receding  ridges 
to  the  north  appear  almost  like  successive  steps  as  they 
fade  away  into  indistinct  outlines  in  the  distance.  Stand- 
ing on  the  brow  of  the  bluff  more  than  five  hundred  feet 
above  Winona,  we  may  look  up  the  great  river  valley  about 
thirty  miles,  and  southward  through  the  narrow  gorge  at 
Trempealeau  to  La  Crosse,  an  equal  distance.  On  the  other 
side  lies  Wisconsin  with  its  castled  rocks  and  wooded 
ravines. 

Without  dwelling  longer  upon  this,  we  embark,  and 
soon  find  that  the  river  has  a  devious  course  among  the 
lowlandso  The  bluffs  are  by  no  means  straight  in  their 
outlines,  but  the  channel  of  the  river  is  much  more  crooked< 


122  TYPE  STUDIES 

Why  does  the  river  make  such  a  winding  course  among 
the  sand-banks,  jogging  from  one  side  of  the  broad  valley 
to  the  other  ?  Just  above  Winona  we  know  there  is  a  net- 
work of  bayous.  How^  have  they  been  formed  ?  In  times 
of  spring  floods  the  whole  broad  valley,  from  four  to  seven 
miles  from  bluff  to  bluff,  is  nearly  covered  with  the  rush- 
ing waters  ;  old  channels  are  cut  off  and  partly  filled,  while 
new  ones  are  opened.  Even  when  the  water  is  not  so  high 
the  current  is  constantly  changing  the  channel,  drifting  in 
sand  in  one  place  and  washing  it  away  somewhere  else. 
Jetties  are  built  near  Winona  to  deepen  the  current. 
They  appear  as  narrow  ridges  of  stone  run  out  into  the 
stream  at  intervals  to  confine  the  current  in  a  narrow 
channel.  We  begin  now  to  see  what  difficulties  the  pilot 
on  our  boat  has  to  meet.  Not  only  must  he  know  all  the 
windings  of  the  current  by  day  and  night,  even  in  the  dark, 
so  as  not  to  run  aground,  but  he  must  keep  track  of  the 
changes  which  take  place  by  the  drifting  of  the  sands. 

We  are  already  familiar  with  the  ravines  that  lie 
between  the  bluffs.  On  our  left  we  soon  see  the  still 
broader  opening  where  the  Rollingstone  comes  down  to 
join  the  Mississippi.  Here  lies  Minnesota  City,  one  of 
the  oldest  settlements  in  the  state.  Just  before  reaching 
Wabasha,  the  opening  in  the  bluffs  on  the  west  shows 
where  the  Zumbro  River  comes  in,  upon  a  branch  of  which 
Rochester  is  situated.  Just  beyond  Wabasha  the  Chip- 
pewa, the  great  lumber  stream  of  Wisconsin,  joins  the 
Mississippi  from  the  north.  The  town  itself,  like  Winona, 
is  a  county  seat.  There  is  also  a  bridge  of  boats  across  the 
river  with  a  draw,  through  which  our  steamboat  passes.  It 
is  a  town  much  like  Winona,  only  not  so  large o  Sawmills 
and  great  piles  of  lumber,  machine  shops  and  factories,  can 


THE   UPPER   MISSISSIPPI  123 

be  seen.  Being  just  below  the  mouth  of  the  Chippewa, 
Wabasha  can  get  lumber  rafts  from  Wisconsin  as  easily  as 
Winona  and  other  cities  below.  Bej-ond  Wabasha  the 
Mississippi  bends  more  toward  the  west,  and  not  many 
miles  up  the  river  we  enter  Lake  Pepin. 

The  bluffs  are  nearly  as  high  along  the  lake  as  at 
Winona,  but  only  about  half  as  far  apart.  Nearly  the 
whole  valley,  however,  between  the  bluffs,  is  filled  with  a 
deep  lake,  twenty-five  miles  long  and  from  two  to  three 
miles  wide.  On  the  west,  one  long  bluff,  near  Lake  City, 
is  entirely  covered  with  forests.  On  the  other  side,  in 
Wisconsin,  stands  Maiden  Rock,  from  the  top  of  which, 
according  to  Indian  story,  an  Indian  maiden  jumped,  be- 
cause she  was  not  allowed  to  wed  the  man  she  loved.  Her 
name  was  Winona.  Standing  on  one  of  the  cliffs  by 
Lake  Pepin,  one  gets  the  finest  view  along  the  Mississippi 
in  Minnesota.  The  bluffs  themselves,  rocky  or  covered 
with  forests,  are  as  striking  as  those  near  Winona,  but 
between  them  lies  the  deep,  dark  lake,  filling  the  whole 
valley.  Several  towns  and  villages  are  in  sight  along 
the  margin  of  the  lake,  steamboats  and  rafts  move  along 
over  the  water,  while  swift,  rumbling  railroad  trains  may 
be  seen,  at  times,  going  up  or  down  the  valley  on  both 
sides  of  the  lake  at  the  foot  of  the  bluffs.  This  is  a  sight 
well  worth  studying,  and  to  make  it  vivid  and  real,  use 
the  best  pictures  that  can  be  obtained. 

Between  the  upper  end  of  Lake  Pepin  and  the  mouth 
of  Cannon  River  is  the  town  of  Red  Wing,  which  not  only 
has  flour  and  saw  mills,  like  Winona,  but  also  a  pottery, 
where  jars,  crocks,  and  other  stoneware  are  made.  A 
kind  of  clay  is  found  here  which  can  be  moulded  into  jars, 
etc.,  and  after  being  dried  is  baked  and  burned  in  large 


124  TYPE  STUDIES 

kilns  or  ovens.  This  reminds  us  of  the  way  in  which 
bricks  are  made  and  burned  in  the  brick-kilns  at  home. 
Whatever  additional  facts  of  interest  and  pictures  con- 
nected with  this  business  the  teacher  can  give  will  be  of 
value  at  this  point.  At  Red  Wing  there  is  also  a  boot 
and  shoe  factory,  where  boots  and  shoes  are  made  much 
more  rapidly  than  by  shoemakers  at  their  benches.  How 
is  it  done  ?  We  said  there  were  sawmills  at  Red  Wing. 
Where  do  their  rafts  of  logs  come  from?  From  the  Chip- 
pewa? But  the  mouth  of  the  Chippewa  is  too  far  down ! 
Are  lumber  rafts  floated  down  tiie  Cannon  River  from  the 
west?  No.  The  Cannon  River  comes  from  a  prairie 
country,  or  from  a  region  where  there  are  no  pine  forests. 
Perhaps  there  is  a  lumber  river  farther  up  the  Mississippi 
coming  from  the  pine  forests.  We  shall  seel  Just  above 
Red  Wing,  where  the  Cannon  River  comes  in  from  the 
west,  there  is  a  bottom-land  as  broad  as  the  valley  of 
the  Mississippi  River.  A  railroad  from  Red  Wing  fol- 
lows the  valley  of  this  river  toward  the  west  to  Cannon 
City,  Northfield,  etc.  The  Cannon  River  is  lined  with 
fine  bluffs  and  wooded  hills,  and  is  a  pleasant  trip  for 
sight-seers  in  fine  weather. 

But  from  Red  Wing  we  keep  up  the  Mississippi  River 
to  Hastings.  Just  before  reaching  this  city  we  notice  a 
large  river  coming  into  the  Mississippi  from  the  north,  the 
St.  Croix.  This  is  the  great  lumber  stream  for  which  we 
have  been  looking.  It  comes  from  the  pineries  and  sends 
down  great  rafts  of  pine  logs  in  springtime.  It  was  at 
a  narrow  place  in  this  stream  that  the  big  lumber  jam 
recently  occurred.  If  possible  show  a  good  picture  of  this 
and  explain  it.  Many  of  the  rafts  for  Wabasha,  Winona, 
and  other  towns  are  first  floated  down  the  St.  Croix.      At 


THE   UPPER  MISSISSIPPI  125 

Hastings  is  another  great  railroad  bridge  across  the  Missis- 
sippi which  swings  open  at  the  sound  of  the  steamboat 
whistle.  This  is  the  bridge  where  the  trains  of  the  Mil- 
waukee road  from  Winona  cross  the  Mississippi  before 
coming  to  St.  Paul.  At  Hastings,  a  little  river,  the  Ver- 
milion, comes  into  the  Mississippi  from  the  north.  As  it 
passes  over  the  rocks  it  forms  the  beautiful  Vermilion 
Falls  near  the  city.  Hastings,  too,  has  flour-mills  and  saw- 
mills. Why  is  it  that  every  one  of  these  towns  along  the 
Mississippi  has  large  flour-mills  just  as  Winona  has? 
Where  does  all  the  wheat  come  from  that  is  ground  in 
these  mills  ?  Why  are  all  the  important  towns  between 
Winona  and  St.  Paul  on  the  Minnesota  side  of  the  river, 
—  Winona,  Wabasha,  Red  Wing,  and  Hastings  ?  On  our 
journey  north  we  may  have  noticed  that  the  bluffs  are 
growing  lower  along  the  Mississippi.  Before  reaching 
St.  Paul  there  are  two  other  points  of  interest,  Kaposia, 
the  old  Indian  village  just  below  the  great  bend,  and  Car- 
ver's cave  in  the  white  sandstone  rocks  just  below  St.  Paul. 
Here  the  Indian  tribes  were  accustomed  to  gather  at  the 
opening  of  every  spring. 

As  St.  Paul  comes  in  sight  there  seems  to  be  a  lower  and 
an  upper  town.  The  lower  town,  where  the  wharves  and 
stations  are,  is  not  many  feet  above  the  level  of  high 
water.  This  level  land  reaches  back  from  the  river  in  a 
sort  of  broad  valley.  Farther  up  the  river  we  can  see 
large  buildings  on  the  edge  of  steep,  white  bluffs.  Several 
bridges  for  railroads  and  wagons  cross  the  river  to  the 
south.  Most  of  them  slope  toward  the  south  side,  because 
it  is  lower.  The  steamboats  can  get  up  no  farther  than 
this,  and  at  the  wharf  in  St.  Paul  they  unload  their 
cargoes  and  take  on  such  grain,  flour,  and  produce  as  they 


126  TYPE  STUDIES 

may  desire  to  carry  down  the  river.  The  river  barges  also 
unload  their  sand,  brick,  and  building  stone  at  the  wharf. 
Where  does  the  building  stone  come  "from  ?  Red  Wing 
and  Dresbach.  We  need  some  good  pictures  of  the  city 
and  river  at  this  point.  Close  at  hand  is  the  great  railroad 
depot,  with  its  many  roads  and  trains  coming  and  going 
at  all  hours.  On  the  way  up  the  river  we  have  noticed 
the  railroad  tracks  and  trains  on  both  sides  of  the  great 
valley.  Which  are  more  rapid  and  convenient,  the  trains 
or  steamboats  ?     Which  do  the  greater  business  ? 

Here  let  us  take  a  general  survey  of  the  surface  fea- 
tures of  the  whole  state.  Briefly,  it  is  as  follows  :  At 
St.  Paul  or  near  there  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries 
branch  out  like  a  fan  and  drain  the  great  interior  of  the 
state.  Beyond  this  the  Height  of  Land,  a  low  ridge  of 
rounded  hills,  circles  about  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi 
from  the  western  to  the  northeastern  part  of  the  state. 
From  this  ridge  one  may  look  down  on  the  streams  and 
lakes  which  send  their  waters  southward  to  the  Gulf,  or  on 
the  other  side  upon  streams  and  lakes  that  flow  northward 
into  Hudson  Bay.  With  chalk  in  hand,  sketching  the  out- 
line, the  teacher  may  point  out  the  forest  and  prairie  re- 
gions of  Minnesota,  besides  the  pineries  already  noticed, 
the  "big  woods,"  then  the  courses  of  the  Red  River  and 
Rainy  Lake  River. 

St.  Paul  is  really  the  head  of  navigation,  but  excursion 
steamers  go  up  the  river  four  or  five  miles  to  Fort  Snell- 
ing  and  Minnehaha  Falls.  Both  are  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Mississippi,  the  fort  on  a  steep  white  bluff  nearly  a 
hundred  feet  high  at  the  angle  where  the  Minnesota  from 
the  southwest  joins  the  Mississippi.  This  old  fort,  with 
its  white  walls  and  rock,  the  old  meeting  place  of  Indians, 


THE   UPPEB  MISSISSIPPI  127 

soldiers,  and  traders,  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque  and 
historically  interesting  places  in  Minnesota.  A  high 
bridge  crosses  the  river  from  the  bluff  at  the  back  of  the 
fort  to  the  bluff  west  of  St.  Paul,  so  that  the  old  for- 
tress is  easily  supplied  with  needed  materials  and  provi- 
sions. Some  two  miles  farther  up  the  Mississippi  is  the 
entrance  to  the  valley  and  Falls  of  Minnehaha.  It  is  a 
deep  narrow  canon  a  mile  long  and  filled  with  trees  and 
shrubbery.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  valley,  Minnehaha 
Falls  tumbles  over  the  semicircular  rocks  into  the  gorge 
and  the  water  winds  its  way  through  the  narrow  valley  to 
join  the  Mississippi.  Grounds  have  been  laid  out  for  a 
park  along  the  bluffs  above  and  a  street  car  runs  hourly  to 
Minneapolis.  For  five  or  six  miles  below  the  falls  at 
Minneapolis  the  Mississippi  River  flows  through  a  narrow 
caiion  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  deep.  Just  above 
the  falls  the  river  bank  is  only  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  high. 
The  falls  have  been  slowly  receding  toward  the  north  as 
the  waters  in  tumbling  over  the  ledge  have  worn  and 
crumbled  the  rocks,  and  the  deep,  narrow  canon  below  is 
the  product  of  the  action  of  the  falls.  But  by  boarding 
up  the  falls  with  a  framework  of  timbers  and  forming 
great  chutes  down  which  the  water  glides,  the  action  of 
the  water  upon  the  rocks  has  been  checked  and  the  scenery 
destroyed.  Bridges  cross  the  river  both  below  and  above 
the  falls.  Those  which  cross  below  must  span  the  canon 
and  are  therefore  much  higher  above  the  water.  Just 
below  the  falls  and  on  the  east  side  are  the  extensive 
grounds  and  buildings  of  the  University  of  Minnesota. 
They  stand  upon  the  bluff  a  hundred  or  more  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  river.  Just  above  the  falls  are  the  exten- 
sive  lumber-yards    of   a   half-dozen    great    sawmills.      A 


128  TYPE  STUDIES 

long  island  divides  the  river  just  above  the  falls  and  both 
the  currents  above  the  bridges  are  almost  filled  with  acres 
and  acres  of  floating  logs.  This  is  the  greatest  centre  for 
the  lumber  trade  of  the  northwest.  In  the  time  of  spring 
floods  the  river  still  makes  a  majestic  appearance  at  the 
falls  as  it  descends  with  a  mighty  rush  the  forty  feet  to 
the  waters  of  the  canon  below.  Even  in  summer  time 
when  the  water  is  low  it  is  interesting  to  stand  on  one  of 
the  high  bridges  below  and  watch  the  stray  logs  come 
tumbling  over  the  falls.  One  can  observe,  too,  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  current  does  not  pass  over  the  falls  at 
all,  but  emerges  in  a  large  stream  from  the  foot  of  the  mills 
after  passing  through  the  big  turbine  wheels  that  move 
all  the  machinery  of  the  greatest  flour-mills  in  the  world. 
There  is  much  navigable  water  above  the  falls,  and  in 
springtime  especially  tlie  rafting  steamers  are  busy  bring- 
ing down  the  log  rafts  to  the  mills.  But  there  are  several 
falls  and  rapids  in  the  upper  stream  that  furnish  excellent 
water-power  as  yet  not  much  used,  but  hindering  naviga- 
tion. Navigation  on  the  upper  stream  is  also  hindered 
by  snags  and  obstructions,  but  these  must  be  removed  in 
springtime  so  as  to  free  the  river  for  rafts  and  steamers. 
The  upper  part  of  the  river  from  a  line  sixty  miles  north 
of  St.  Paul  is  in  the  region  of  pineries,  from  which  the 
pine  logs  come.  This  is  also  the  region  of  numberless 
lakes  where  hunting  and  fishing  are  still  in  their  prime. 
Minnesota  is  said  to  have  ten  thousand  lakes,  and  those 
most  attractive  for  hunting  and  fishing  and  for  solitude 
are  on  the  high  plateau  where  the  Mississippi  takes  its 
rise.  There  the  great  woods  are  solitudes,  the  lakes  and 
rivers  are  clear  and  fresh,  and  the  fish  and  fowl  abundant. 
The  great  river  itself,  in  its  early  upward  course,  passes 


THE   UPPER   MISSISSIPPI  129 

through  a  number  of  smaller  and  larger  lakes  as  it  makes 
the  great  bend  to  the  east  and  south.  It  passes  over  many- 
rapids  and  falls  as  it  descends  from  the  uplands,  and 
steadily  grows  as  new  streams  from  the  woods  and  lakes 
enter  it  from  either  side.  In  winter  time  this  is  a  very 
cold  country  of  deep  snows  and  snow-shoes,  and  a  quiet 
but  steady  freezing  atmosphere.  But  in  summer  it  is  the 
chosen  land  of  the  hunter  and  boatman. 

The  head  waters  of  the  Mississippi  and  of  its  tributary 
streams,  with  their  lakes  and  forests,  have  become  an 
object  of  great  interest  to  the  people  dwelling  along 
the  banks  of  the  river  throughout  its  whole  course,  even 
to  New  Orleans  and  the  delta.  The  woods,  lakes,  and 
streams  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  in  Minnesota  and  other 
states  are  the  great  reservoir  from  which  the  floods  come 
down  to  break  the  levees  and  flood  the  lowlands  of  Missis- 
sippi and  Louisiana.  Of  course  the  sources  of  the  Ohio 
and  Missouri  are  equally  responsible.  Now,  if  these 
floods  of  water  in  springtime  can  be  checked  and  held 
back,  in  part  at  least,  it  will  help  to  save  the  lower  river 
from  destructive  floods.  But  in  summer  time  the  upper 
river,  from  Rock  Island  to  St.  Paul,  is  often  too  shallow 
for  the  regular  steamers.  If  these  waters,  which  have 
been  held  back  in  springtime,  can  be  let  go  to  deepen  the 
river  in  the  drouth  of  summer,  it  will  greatly  aid  the  navi- 
gation of  the  upper  stream.  The  government,  therefore, 
has  been  at  work  for  some  years  constructing  and  arrang- 
ing for  great  reservoirs  in  the  upper  sources  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, by  which  the  spring  waters  may  be  held  back.  Still 
another  advantage  of  such  reservoirs  would  be  that  it 
would  make  the  season  of  floating  logs  down  the  river 
longer  and  also  supply  the  great  mills  at  Minneapolis  and 


130  TYPE  STUDIES 

elsewhere  a  larger  water-power  in  the  summer  time  when 
it  is  needed.  It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that  all  parts  of 
the  great  river  stand  in  close  dependence  upon  each 
other.  The  forests  in  the  north  are  very  important  as  a 
means  of  water  preservation  and  must  be  protected  for 
their  great  public  value.  In  winter  time  the  northern  part 
of  the  valley  is  a  reservoir  from  which  to  cut  and  ship 
vast  quantities  of  ice  to  the  south,  while  the  other  prod- 
ucts of  the  north  and  south  are  exchanged  by  boat. 

The  purpose  of  such  an  excursion  as  this  is  to  bring  to- 
gether into  one  connected  series  the  idea  of  a  river  valley 
with  all  its  living  pictures  and  associated  facts,  —  the 
narrow,  winding  valley,  the  panoramic  views  of  bluffs, 
lake,  and  broad  bottom-lands,  forests,  villages,  cities,  in- 
dustries, tributary  streams,  bridges,  railroads,  rafts,  steam- 
boats, and  river  commerce.  All  this  is  to  become  vivid 
and  clear,  and  a  good  type  of  a  great  river  valley  upon 
dozens  of  streams  the  world  over.  The  more  good  pic- 
tures and  illustrations  of  these  and  of  similar  scenes  on 
the  Mississippi,  the  more  vivid  descriptions  based  on  ex- 
perience and  reading,  the  better.  One  complete  and  de- 
tailed account  of  a  river  trip  like  this  is  more  productive 
of  knowledge  and  insight  and  more  helpful  to  future 
geography  study  than  a  dozen  superficially  studied. 
What  is  true  of  the  Mississippi  will  be  found  in  the 
main  to  be  true  of  the  Hudson,  of  the  Rhine,  and  of 
the  Danube,  and  it  will  be  tenfold  easier  to  understand 
one  of  these  distant  rivers  and  the  country  through 
which  it  flows  if  we  first  form  a  concrete  and  detailed 
picture  of  one  of  our  own  great  streams. 

Just  as  v/e  have  already  dealt  with  the  lumbering 
business  in  detail    and    with   the  Upper  Mississippi,  we 


THE   UPPER  MISSISSIPPI  131 

are  ready  now  to  do  the  same  for  the  wheat  and  flour 
mills.  We  desire  an  exhaustive  account  of  the  work  on 
a  wheat  farm,  the  ploughing,  sowing,  harvesting,  thresh- 
ing, granaries,  and  marketing  of  the  grain  ;  the  scenes 
from  a  great  wheat-field,  a  characteristic  thing  for  Minne- 
sota, the  machinery  used,  —  ploughs,  drills,  self-binders, 
threshing  machines  ;  how  the  wheat  is  brought  to  the 
stations  and  elevators,  then  carried  by  the  chief  railroad 
lines  to  Minneapolis  and  other  river  cities,  to  the  big 
mills  ;  what  is  done  with  such  quantities  of  flour  after 
it  is  made  in  Minneapolis  and  Winona  and  other  cities ; 
where  the  hungry  people  live  who  want  all  this  flour  for 
bread ;  and  what  they  have  to  send  us  in  return. 


THE   HARD-WOOD   FOREST    REGION    OF    THE 
OHIO    VALLEY 

CoNTKAST  the  appearance  of  the  Ohio  Valley  now  and 
two  hundred  years  ago. 

Indiana  is  much  of  it  to-day  a  well-wooded  country. 
There  are  large  forests  of  oak,  hickory,  maple,  beech,  pop- 
lar, walnut,  sycamore,  and  other  hard-wood  trees.  The 
southern  half  of  Indiana  still  contains  extensive  forests, 
while  the  northern  quarter  has  level  prairies  and  swamps. 
As  one  rides  on  the  railroads  through  Indiana,  he  will  see 
large  piles  of  sawlogs  near  the  sawmills  at  the  towns 
and  cities.  These  are  being  worked  up  by  the  saw  into 
useful  lumber.  If  one  travels  out  into  the  country,  he 
will  find  in  the  woods  sawmills,  run  by  water  or  steam 
power.  Many  of  the  fields  are  still  sprinkled  with  stumps, 
and  in  some  places  we  see  the  dead  trees  standing  which 
have  been  girdled  the  last  season.  After  the  trees  die, 
they  are  cut  down  ;  those  good  for  lumber  or  wood  are  cut 
up  and  hauled  away,  while  the  brush  and  other  tree  trunks 
are  burned  up.  These  smouldering  fires  are  often  seen  by 
the  traveller  passing  through  the  Ohio  Valley.  During  the 
last  eighty  years  the  great  forests  that  covered  the  hills 
and  plains  and  valleys  of  this  region  have  been  largely  cut 
away,  and  the  stumps  have  rotted  in  the  ground  or  were 
pulled  up  and  burned.  There  are,  therefore,  many  large, 
open  fields  and  districts  of   country  where  meadows  of 

132 


HARD-WOOD   FORESTS  133 

grass  or  fields  of  corn,  wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  and  other 
grains  or  vegetables  are  seen.  Indiana,  Kentucky,  etc., 
have  thus  grown  to  be  very  rich  agricultural  states,  with 
many  cities,  towns,  and  railroads.  When  the  white  men 
first  began  to  settle  these  states  and  make  homes  in  the 
wilderness,  it  was  totally  different  from  what  is  seen 
to-day.  The  great  woods,  with  their  towering  trees,  cov- 
ered nearly  the  whole  land.  Very  old  men  now  living  can 
remember  when  the  Ohio  Valley  was  one  large  forest,  with 
no  railroads  and  very  few  wagon  roads. 

The  early  settlers  in  Indiana  were  the  French  at  Vin- 
cennes  and  along  the  Wabash  River.  They  were  a  joyous, 
happy  people,  who  were  very  friendly  with  the  Indians 
and  were  good  wood  rangers  and  trappers.  They  hunted 
deer  and  buffalo,  wild  turkey  and  squirrels,  and  other  wild 
animals  for  their  pelts.  When  they  travelled,  it  was 
either  on  foot  as  hunters  or  in  boats  up  and  down  the 
rivers. 

At  the  close  of  the  French  and  Indian  wars,  the  Yankees 
and  other  English-speaking  whites  began  to  cross  the 
Alleghany  Mountains  into  the  Ohio  Valley.  From  Pitts- 
burg they  came  down  the  Ohio  River  in  flatboats  and 
canoes  and  landed  near  the  river  in  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and 
Indiana.  The  very  first  thing  (as  at  Cincinnati)  was  to 
clear  away  the  brush  and  trees  of  the  forest,  making  room 
for  houses  and  forts  and  gardens.  As  one  rides  in  a 
steamboat  along  the  Ohio  River  to-day,  few  of  these  old 
forests  are  seen  left  standing.  They  have  been  cut  away 
from  the  bottom-lands  and  the  level  upper  bottoms,  and 
only  along  the  steeper  hillsides  and  bluffs  are  many  trees 
seen.  As  the  early  immigrants  landed  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Ohio  in  Indiana  they  had  to  make  their  way  through 


134  TYPE  STUDIES 

the  woods,  and  up  the  ravines  to  the  better  lands  back  from 
the  river  (as  in  Lincoln's  early  boyhood).  There  were 
no  roads  for  wagons,  and  when  a  good  spot  was  found  for 
building,  trees  were  felled,  a  clearing  made,  and  the  rough 
tree  trunks  were  squared  down  with  a  broadaxe  and  a  log 
house  commenced.  The  ends  were  notched  and  the  logs 
jointed  together  at  the  corners.  The  pioneer  was  his  own 
carpenter.  He  had  saw  and  axe,  plane  and  auger,  aild 
other  tools,  and  was  strong  and  skilful  in  their  use.  The 
log  hut  often  had  but  one  room,  with  a  loft  reached  by  a 
ladder  or  by  pins  driven  into  the  logs,  and  it  was  used  by 
the  older  children  as  a  sleeping  room. 

The  early  settlers  lived  partly  by  hunting  and  partly 
by  raising  crops  on  the  clearings.  Before  crops  could  be 
raised  the  trees  had  to  be  cut  down  and  burned  up,  a  very 
heavy  labor,  and  when  the  stumpy  field  was  ready  it  was 
ploughed  and  put  in  corn  or  wheat,  melons  or  vegetables. 

At  first  there  were  no  public  surveys,  and  the  settler 
selected  a  spot  to  suit  himself.  ''  Deadening  a  patch  of 
woods  near  the  head  of  a  spring,  cutting  the  initials  of  the 
claimant's  name  on  the  corner  trees,  and  throwing  up  any 
sort  of  a  hut  constituted  an  improvement.  Division  lines 
were  chiefly  on  the  water  courses,  or  on  the  top  of  the 
ridges.  The  earliest  farms,  therefore,  resembled  an  amphi- 
theatre. The  cabin  was  always  on  the  lower  ground, 
which  pleased  the  squatter  because  of  its  convenience  ; 
everything  came  to  the  house  down  hill."  —  American 
Commonwealths,  "Ohio,"  p.  191.  Afterwards,  when  the 
land  was  laid  out  by  public  surveys,  these  old  farm-houses 
w^ere  found  to  be  far  from  the  roads.  Later  people  began 
also  to  build  on  the  higher  lands,  but  for  many  years  the 
old  settlers  believed  there  was  less  ague  in  the  lowlands. 


HARD-WOOD  FORESTS  135 

"  The  millions  who  are  dwelling  in  peace  and  plenty  in 
the  broad  farms  and  busy  towns  of  Ohio  and  Indiana  to- 
day can  get  no  realizing  sense  from  mere  words  of  the 
hardships  by  which  their  prosperity  was  earned.  The 
toilsome  journey  of  the  pioneers,  the  steep  mountain  ways, 
the  camping  out,  where  there  were  no  inns  and  hardly 
a  road  to  guide  them,  were  as  nothing  to  the  dreariness 
which,  at  the  journey's  end,  confronted  the  immigrant 
and  his  devoted  wife  and  tender  children.  The  unbroken 
forest  was  all  that  welcomed  them,  and  the  awful  stillness 
of  the  night  had  no  refrain  but  the  howl  of  the  wolf  or 
wailing  of  the  whippoorwill.  The  nearest  neighbor  often 
was  miles  away. 

"  Their  first  necessity  was  to  girdle  the  trees  and  grub 
a  few  acres  for  corn  and  truck  patch,  sufficient  for  the 
season.  As  soon  as  the  logs  were  cut  a  cabin  was  built 
with  the  aid  of  neighbors.  Necessity  invented  the  house 
raising,  as  it  did  the  log  rolling  and  corn  shucking."  When 
the  losfs  and  timbers  for  the  framew^ork  of  the  house  were 
ready  the  neighbors  were  called  in,  and  the  heavy  structure 
was  lifted  into  place  by  the  united  strength  of  the  men. 
When  the  work  was  done  a  feast  and  jollification  followed. 
Neighbors  were  accustomed  to  help  each  other  often  in 
such  ways,  and  to  join  in  the  corn  huskings,  bear  hunts, 
log  rollings,  and  weddings,  the  latter  lasting  usually  three 
days. 

''  The  log  house,  with  its  clapboard  roof,  single  room,  and 
door,  if  any,  swinging  upon  wooden  hinges,  with  no 
window  but  a  patch  of  greased  newspaper  between  the 
logs,  and  no  floor  but  the  ground,  was  often  finished  at 
nightfall  on  the  spot  where  the  trees  had  stood  in  the 
morning.     The  daubing  of  the  chinks  and  wooden  chimney 


136  TYPE   STUDIES 

with  clay  and  a  few  pegs  in  the  interior  for  the  housewife's 
use  were  all  that  this  simple  cabin  in  those  days  could  afford. 

"  But  food  rather  than  shelter  was  the  severest  want  of 
the  pioneers.  True,  the  woods  were  full  of  game,  but 
venison,  turkey,  and  bear  meat  all  the  time  became  tiresome 
enough.  There  was  no  bread  nor  salt.  The  scanty  salt 
springs  (salt  licks)  were  precious.  The  Indian  corn,  when 
once  started,  was  the  chief  reliance  for  man  and  beast. 
This  crop,  converted  also  into  bacon,  pork,  and  whiskey, 
soon  became  the  staple  of  the  country.  The  lack  of  mills 
was  at  first  deeply  felt.  Corn  was  parched  and  ground  by 
hand  or  by  horse  power. 

"The  furniture  of  the  cabins  and  dress  of  the  people 
were  very  simple.  Good  tables,  cupboards,  and  benches 
were  made  of  poplar  and  beech  woods.  The  buckeye 
furnished  bowls  and  platters  and  split-bottom  chairs. 
Bearskins  were  bed  and  bedding.  The  deerskin,  dressed 
and  undressed,  was  much  used  for  clothing,  and  the  skins 
of  the  raccoon  and  rabbit  were  a  favorite  headgear.  But 
wool  and  flax  soon  abounded  and  spinning-wheels  and 
looms  became  standard  articles  in  every  house.  The  hulls 
of  walnuts  and  butternuts  were  used  for  dyeing,  also  a 
root  of  bright  yellow,  and  later  indigo  and  madder  for  the 
hunting  shirt  and  warmus.  These  primitive  fashions 
yielded  as  store  goods,  together  with  iron  and  Onondaga 
salt,  began  to  be  introduced  by  th  3  great  Pennsylvania 
wagons  from  Pittsburg  and  the  ports  along  the  Ohio. 
Goods  were  also  brought  up  the  river  from  New  Orleans 
in  keel  boats. 

"  The  pioneers  had  pastimes  and  festivities  also  in  their 
own  way.  Besides  others,  there  were  the  sugar  camp,  the 
militia  musters,  the  bear  hunts,  the  shooting  matches,  and 


HARD-WOOD   FORESTS  137 

the  races.  At  these  the  neighborhood  for  miles  around 
was  wont  to  gather.  The  quilting  party  was  a  joy  in 
feminine  circles.  The  camp-meetings  were  another  early 
custom,  and  used  to  supply  the  place  of  Sunday  worship." 

Travelling  was  at  first  mainly  on  foot  and  on  horseback. 
There  were  few  wagon  roads,  and  those  very  rough  and  in 
many  places  miry  and  bad  even  in  good  weather.  The 
great  forests  kept  the  soil  so  moist  that  the  roads  could  not 
dry  out.  It  was  very  difficult  for  some  years  to  get  the  sur- 
plus grain  and  meat  to  market.  In  the  spring,  at  the 
time  of  floods,  flatboats  would  be  loaded  with  meat  or 
grain  and  sent  down  the  smaller  streams  to  the  Ohio,  and 
thence  to  New  Orleans.  When  a  few  roads  had  been 
built,  the  farmers  would  haul  their  meat  and  grain  many 
miles  to  Cincinnati  or  other  river  towns,  and  purchase 
goods  with  the  money  gained  from  their  produce. 

The  early  settlers  in  Indiana,  Ohio,  and  Illinois  needed 
a  better  connection  with  the  eastern  states  from  which  they 
came.  As  early  as  1808  they  secured  aid  from  Congress  in 
building  a  road  from  the  tide-water  east  of  the  Alleghanies 
to  the  Ohio  River.  This  old  national  road  crossed  the  Ohio 
River  at  Wheeling  and  ran  across  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illi- 
nois, passing  through  Columbus,  Indianapolis,  and  Terre 
Haute  to  St.  Louis.  As  soon  as  it  was  built  emigrants 
from  the  east  came  by  wagons  with  all  their  goods  to  set- 
tle in  these  states,  and  goods  were  sent  in  great  wagon 
loads  to  the  east.  As  the  country  was  settled  up  roads 
were  opened  through  the  forest  in  all  directions,  and  the 
swampy  lands  were  crossed  by  means  of  corduroy  roads, 
consisting  of  logs  and  boards  laid  crosswise  of  the  wagon 
path  in  swampy  places.  It  caused  very  rough  riding,  but 
was  better  than  miring  in  the  mud. 


138  TYPE  STUDIES 

The  early  pioneers  in  the  great  forests  of  Indiana  had 
another  enemy  in  the  shape  of  fever  and  ague  and  other 
diseases  of  a  wet,  malarial  country.  Much  of  the  land  was 
swampy  and  covered  more  or  less  with  stagnant  water, 
which  the  forests  prevented  from  evaporating.  Often- 
times no  physicians  were  to  be  had,  as  the  settlers  were 
widely  scattered;  there  were  few  towns,  and  medicine 
was  hard  to  get.  The  milk  sickness,  supposed  to  have 
been  caused  from  drinking  the  milk  of  cows  that  had 
fed  on  some  poisonous  plant,  was  a  great  plague.  Fevers, 
agues,  and  bilious  complaints  were  very  common,  and 
the  settlers  used  quantities  of  quinine  as  the  great  remedy. 
As  the  forests  have  been  cut  away  and  the  wet  and 
swampy  places  drained  out,  the  country  has  become  much 
more  healthful. 

In  order  to  secure  a  better  outlet  for  trade  great  canals 
were  dug  connecting  Lake  Erie  on  the  north  with  the 
Wabash  and  Ohio  on  the  south.  The  farmers  living  near 
the  canal  could  ship  their  grain  and  meat  much  cheaper  to 
Buffalo  or  Cincinnati  or  New  Orleans,  and  new  settlers 
could  bring  their  goods  by  canal. 

The  wagon  roads  were  constantly  improved.  Gravel 
roads  and  turnpikes  began  to  be  built  more  than  sixty 
years  ago.  If  we  visit  the  county  towns  (county  seats) 
in  Indiana  to-day,  we  shall  find  a  set  of  well-gravelled 
roads,  smooth  and  solid  even  in  muddy  and  wet  weather, 
reaching  out  into  the  country  and  enabling  the  farmers  at 
all  seasons  to  haul  heavy  loads  to  the  markets  or  to  use 
their  carriages  in  travel.  These  gravelled  roads  have  been 
a  great  expense  to  the  farmers  and  townspeople,  but  they 
are  of  greats  value  for  trade  and  travel. 

Between  1830  and  1840  railroads  began  to  be  built  in 


HABD-WOOD  FORESTS 


139 


Indiana  and  Ohio,  especially  those  running  east  and  west, 
connecting  the  eastern  states  with  the  western.  When 
Indianapolis  was  first  laid  out  in  the  centre  of  Indiana  it 
was  in  the  mid&t  of  the  forest.  The  White  River,  near 
which  it  stood,  was  not  large  enough  for  navigation,  and 


Fig.  41. 
A  lumber  camp  in  the  Ohio  Valley. 

roads  had  to  be  built  to  connect  the  city  with  Cincinnati 
and  other  cities.  When  the  railroads  were  built  Indianap- 
olis became  a  very  important  centre  for  the  trade  of  the 
whole  state.  All  the  railroads  from  different  directions 
meet  in  one  great  depot,  which  has  come  to  be  one  of  the 
greatest  railroad  centres  in  the  world. 


140  TYPE  STUDIES 

The  forests  of  Indiana  have  always  been  of  great  value 
to  the  state.  In  the  early  settlement  they  furnished 
building  materials  for  houses,  barns,  bridges,  roads,  fences, 
and  for  furniture,  wagons,  etc.  Later  the  forests  have 
been  cut  down  for  lumber  such  as  poplar,  hickory,  oak, 
walnut,  maple,  beech,  and  sycamore.  The  forests  still 
furnish  a  large  amount  of  hard-wood  lumber  for  the  great 
factories  and  car  works  in  Chicago,  Indianapolis,  Nashville, 
and  other  cities,  but  in  many  parts  the  finest  lumber  trees 
have  been  cut  down,  and  what  are  left  have  an  increased 
value.  The  black  walnut,  for  example,  once  abounded  in 
these  forests,  but  most  of  the  walnut  trees  have  been  cut 
down  and  made  into  lumber  for  sewing  machines,  organs, 
tables,  desks,  and  other  furniture. 

Indiana  was  only  a  part  of  the  great  hard-wood  forest 
region  lying  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Alleghany 
Mountains  and  stretching  away  hundreds  of  miles  to  the 
prairies  of  Illinois  and  Missouri.  The  early  settlers  who 
first  crossed  the  mountains  into  the  Ohio  Valley,  *and  then 
floated  for  hundreds  of  miles  down  that  stream,  must  have 
felt  that  the  forest  was  endless.  They  began  to  cut  down 
and  clear  away  the  great  trees  as  if  it  would  be  impossible 
for  the  supply  to  give  out.  West  Virginia,  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Indiana,  and  part  of  Illinois  and 
Missouri  were  covered  by  these  great  stretches  of  forest. 
All  the  country  drained  by  the  Ohio  and  its  tributaries, 
the  Muskingum,  Scioto,  Wabash,  the  Kanawha,  Kentucky, 
Cumberland,  and  Tennessee,  the  Allegheny  and  Mononga- 
hela,  was  an  almost  unknown  woodland.  In  those  early 
days  it  was  full  of  game,  and  dangerous  because  of  Indians. 
Buffalo,  deer,  wild  turkey,  beaver,  raccoon,  bear,  squirrel, 
pigeons,  and  other  wild  fowls  and  animals  were  abundant. 


HABD-WOOD  FORESTS  141 

At  Marietta,  the  first  large  settlement  in  Ohio,  Mr. 
King  says  (American  Commonwealths,  "  Ohio,"  p.  201) : 
"  Whatever  their  privations  and  dangers,  the  adventurers 
were  spared  any  fears  of  famine.  Their  fields  and  gardens 
were  not  only  fruitful  beyond  their  utmost  expectation, 
but  the  abundance  of  fish,  flesh,  and  fowl  was  simply 
prodigious.  Buffalo,  deer,  and  bear  seemed  to  wait  upon 
them.  Geese,  ducks,  and  pigeons  swarmed.  The  fish 
fairly  infested  the  rivers,  and  were  of  such  superlative 
size,  that  if  the  accounts  of  tliem  were  not  proved  by  good 
evidence,  they  might  be  set  aside  as  fish  stories.  Colonel 
May  says  that  a  pike  weighing  one  hundred  pounds  was 
served  up  at  a  fourth  of  July  barbecue,  and  catfish  of 
sixty  and  eighty  pounds  were  often  caught." 

But  the  appearance  of  this  heavily  forested  region  has 
changed  greatly  during  the  last  hundred  years.  The  wild 
game  is  mostly  gone.  The  forests  themselves  have  largely 
disappeared,  and  great  fields  of  corn,  wheat,  oats,  meadow 
and  pasture  lands  now  stretch  away  where  once  stood 
mighty  trees  so  thick  that  their  shade  darkened  the 
ground.  The  swamps  have  been  drained,  roads  and 
bridges  built,  cities  and  towns  are  thick,  and  the  railroads 
extending  in  every  direction  cover  the  land  with  what  ap- 
pears on  a  map  as  a  network  of  lines  and  crossings.  Great 
cities  like  Indianapolis,  Nashville,  Columbus,  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  and  Louisville  have  become  the  hoAies  and 
trading  places  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people  where 
a  little  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago  there  were  no  inhab- 
itants at  all,  only  forests  and  wild  game  and  wilderness. 

In  our  day  the  serious  question  is  not  how  to  get  rid  of 
the  forests,  as  with  our  grandfathers  sixty  years  ago,  but 
how  to  save  them.     The  forests  have  been  cut  down  too 


142  TYPE  STUDIES 

much,  not  only  destroying  much  valuable  lumber,  but 
changing  the  climate  and  causing  the  rivers  to  flood  their 
banks  in  spring.  The  forests  no  longer  hold  the  water 
back  but  it  runs  off  too  quickly  in  the  springtime.  The 
question  of  the  future  is  therefore  largely  to  protect  the 
forests,  to  plant  out  trees,  and  to  provide  for  an  extension 
of  the  forest  area. 

It  will  be  of  special  interest  to  compare  the  forest  area 
of  the  pineries  of  the  northern  states  with  the  hard-wood 
forest  region  of  the  Ohio  Valley.  Which  has  the  greater 
extent  ?  The  appearance  of  the  forests  in  the  two  sections 
is  very  different.  After  the  pine  forests  are  cut  down  in 
the  north,  a  sandy,  somewhat  barren  soil  is  left,  while  the 
soil  of  the  hard-wood  region  is  strong  and  fruitful.  A 
comparison  of  the  hard-wood  forests  with  the  prairie  region 
of  Illinois,  Iowa,  etc.,  will  also  be  of  interest.  The  black 
soil  of  the  prairies  is  contrasted  with  the  lighter  loam  and 
clay  of  the  forest  belt. 

Reference  ;  King's  "  History  of  Ohio,"  American  Common- 
wealths. 


Fig.  42. 
The  Ohio  River. 


THE   OHIO   RIVER  VALLEY 


The  Ohio  River,  called  by  the  early  settlers  the  Beauti- 
ful River,  has  its  sources  high  among  the  western  slopes 
of  the  Alleghanies.  The  great  tributaries  on  the  south, 
from  Kanawha  to  the  Tennessee,  drain  the  whole  western 
slope  of  the  Alleghanies  as  far  as  Alabama.  On  the  north, 
the  watershed  between  the  Ohio  branches  and  the  Great 
Lakes  is  almost  as  low  as  between  the  Upper  Mississippi 
and  the  Lakes.  When  the  white  men  first  penetrated  the 
Ohio  Valley,  in  the  days  of  Daniel  Boone,  it  was  covered 
with  mighty  forests  of  hard-wood  trees,  stretching  away 
hundreds  of  miles  to  the  Mississippi  River  (see  previous 
topic).  The  buffalo,  deer,  bear,  wild  turkey,  squirrels, 
and  other  game  abounded.  The  axe  of  the  pioneer  and 
woodman  has  long  since  cleared  awa}^  a  large  part  of  these 
grand  old  woods,  and  changed  them  into  fruitful  fields 
and  farms. 

The  Ohio  River  Valley  naturally  falls  into  three  divi- 
sions.    The  first  is  the  mountain  district  drained  by  the 

143 


144  TYPE  STUDIES 

Allegheny  and  Monongahela  and  their  branches.  The 
Allegheny  River  rises  in  Lake  Chautauqua,  only  eleven 
miles  from  Lake  Erie,  and  descends  through  long,  narrow 
valleys  to  its  junction  with  the  Monongahela.  To  one 
travelling  through  this  valley  now,  it  is  chiefly  remark- 
able for  the  huge  oil-tanks  and  thousands  of  oil-wells 
which  have  made  this  region  so  famous  for  the  production 
of  petroleum  and  its  by-products. 

The  Monongahela,  likewise,  has  worn  a  deep  and  nar- 
row valley  between  the  long  mountain  ridges.  In  many 
places  the  steep,  rocky  walls,  from  two  hundred  to  four 
hundred  feet  high  close  to  the  river  banks,  give  the  appear- 
ance of  caiions.  The  rock  strata  along  this  river  are  full 
of  the  coal  measures,  and  the  coal  is  seen  cropping  out 
between  the  layers  of  rock.  Many  coal-mines  are  run 
back  horizontally  into  the  mountains,  and  the  coal  is 
hauled  out  and  dumped  into  the  coal-barges  which  line 
the  shore.  This  river  is  supplied  with  a  series  of  dams 
and  locks  and  with  slack-water  navigation  like  that  on  the 
Illinois  River.  Rafts  of  logs  also  float  down  from  the 
mountains  to  the  sawmills  below. 

At  the  junction  of  the  two  rivers  lie  the  cities  of  Pitts- 
burg and  Allegheny,  famous  as  centres  for  the  iron  busi- 
ness, also  for  oil  and  glass.  Not  only  at  the  junction  of  these 
rivers  are  there  great  iron  works,  tall  chimneys  smoking 
day  and  night,  and  flashes  of  lurid  light  from  the  huge 
converters,  but  up  and  down  the  valleys  of  these  rivers 
for  many  miles,  at  Braddock,  Homestead,  and  McKeesport, 
at  Sharpsburg,  and  even  to  Wheeling  and  other  cities,  the 
great  factories  carry  on  their  work  of  manufacturing  iron 
and  glass.  Large  quantities  of  coal  and  iron  are  found  in 
the  mountains  of  western  Pennsylvania,  while  the  rivers 


THE  OHIO  BIVER    VALLEY 


145 


and  railroads  following  the  valleys  bring  in  the  raw  prod- 
ucts for  these  huge  factories.  All  these  rivers  and  their 
larger  tributaries  supply  the  deep  valleys  through  which 
railroads  can  be  built  into  such  mountain  districts. 
During  the  winter  the  coal-barges  are  filled  with  coal  at 
the  mines,  and  as  the  spring  floods  swell  the  Ohio,  a  great 
fleet  of  lumber  rafts  from  the  mountains,  coal-barges,  and 


Fig.  43. 
Towboat  with  fleet  of  empty  barges  going  up  the  river. 


steamboats,  is   sent   down  the  river  to  distribute  these 
products  through  the  Ohio  Valley. 

The  middle  division  of  the  Ohio  Valley  lies  between 
Pittsburg  and  Louisville,  and  is  a  hilly,  upland  region. 
The  rivers  flowing  into  the  Ohio  from  the  north,  like  the 
Muskingum  and  the  Scioto,  descend  to  the  Ohio  through 
deep  valleys,  with  narrow  flood  plains,  and  most  of  the 
large  cities  are  located  at  the  outlet  of  these  side  valleys. 


146  TYPE  STUDIES 

The  rivers  from  the  south,  such  as  the  Kanawha,  Ken- 
tucky, and  Big  Sandy,  come  down  from  the  western 
slopes  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  cut  deep,  narrow  gorges  on 
their  way  to  the  Ohio.  In  this  part  of  its  course  the  Ohio 
is  lined  with  high  bluffs,  which  are  still  covered  in  many 
places  with  forests  of  hard  wood  and  evergreen.  The 
cities  are  located  on  the  river  benches,  between  the  low 
water  and  the  bluffs  above.  The  main  channel,  or  trough, 
of  the  river  is  below  these  benches.  The  benches  are 
usually  sixty  or  sixty-five  feet  above  low-water  mark,  but 
the  heavy  spring  floods  sometimes  fill  the  great  trough, 
rise  even  above  the  surface  of  the  benches,  and  carry 
damage  to  towns  and  fields. 

The  floods  of  the  Ohio  River  are  much  dreaded^  and 
are  due  in  part  to  the  removal  of  the  forests,  over  vast 
areas,  which  once  held  the  water  in  check  and  drained 
them  off'  more  gradually  to  the  rivers.  The  difference 
between  high  and  low  water  mark  has  been  sometimes  as 
much  as  seventy  feet.  During  the  dry  summer  the  main 
stream  of  the  Ohio  is  at  times  not  more  than  two  or  three 
feet  deep,  and  navigation  is  wholly  interrupted. 

At  Louisville  the  river  breaks  over  a  series  of  limestone 
reefs,  falling  about  twenty  feet  in  three  miles.  In  high 
water  the  rocks  are  covered,  and  boats  pass  down  over 
these  rapids  easily,  but  in  low  water  the  rock  ledges 
appear,  and  vessels  must  pass  through  the  canal  and  locks 
at  Louisville  to  avoid  the  rapids. 

Below  Louisville  the  bottom-lands  widen  out  into  a 
broad  alluvial  plain,  the  bluffs  retreating  back  from  the 
stream,  much  as  in  the  Lower  Mississippi.  Low,  wooded 
islands  are  seen  in  the  lowlands,  and  several  large  tribu- 
taries enter  this  great  valley  from  the  north  and  south. 


THE  OHIO  RIVER    VALLEY 


147 


The  Green  River,  which  rises  in  the  hills  of  central  Ken- 
tucky, drains  a  region  underlaid  with  carboniferous 
limestones,  in  which  are  found  extensive  caverns.  The 
greatest  of  all  these  is  Mammoth  Cave,  which  has  rooms 
and  passages  150  miles  in  total  length.  The  Green  River 
draws  some  of  its  waters  from  underground  streams  of 


Fig.  44. 
A  bridge  over  the  Ohio  at  Cincinnati. 

this  famous  cavern.  The  regions  of  the  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee  rivers  have  similar  limestone  rock  strata,  in 
which  extensive  caves  are  found.  The  great  forests  and 
decaying  vegetation  of  these  regions,  by  producing  carbon 
dioxide,  which  was  carried  down  into  the  rocks  by  rain- 
water, assisted  greatly  in  dissolving  the  rock  strata,  and 
thus  developing  these  extensive  caverns. 

The  Tennessee  River,  the  longest  and  largest  tributary 
of  the  Ohio,  has  its  sources  far  up  among  the  mountain  crests 
of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina.     This  river,  following  the 


148  TYPE  STUDIES 

long  valleys  of  the  Alleghanies  far  southward  into  Ala- 
bama, instead  of  keeping  on  its  course  toward  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  cuts  through  the  Chickainauga  ranges  by  narrow 
gorges  and  is  turned  by  a  low  mountain  ridge  westward 
in  a  grand  curve.  Then,  unable  to  cross  the  low  ridge 
between  it  and  the  Mississippi,  it  turns  its  course  north- 
ward through  Tennessee  to  Kentucky  and  the  Ohio. 
Thus  the  whole  western  slope  of  the  Alleghanies  is  drained 
into  the  Ohio  River. 

The  Ohio  Valley  is,  at  the  present  time,  the  most  im- 
portant in  point  of  population,  cities,  and  wealth  of  any 
part  of  the  Mississippi  Basin.  Originally  one  vast  hard- 
wood forest,  it  is  still  rich  in  timber  lands,  especially  in 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee  and  West  Virginia.  The  large 
coal  and  iron  fields  of  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia, 
Kentucky,  and  Tennessee,  as  well  as  of  the  Ohio  and 
Indiana,  are  of  vast  importance.  The  tobacco  regions 
of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  as  of  Indiana,  centre  mainly 
in  the  city  of  Louisville.  In  agriculture,  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Kentucky,  and  Tennessee  have  very  rich  resources  and 
productions. 

This  region  comprises  alarge  number  of  great  cities:  Pitts- 
burg, 315,000  ;  Allegheny,  125,000  ;   Cincinnati,  405,000 
Louisville, 225,000;  Nashville,  100,000;  Columbus,  135,000 
Dayton,    85,000;    Covington,    50,000;    Newport,   30,000 
Wheeling,  40,000;  Chattanooga,  40, 000;  Knox ville,  50,000 
Indianapolis,  169,000.      Seven  of  these  cities  have  more 
than  100,000  people  each.       If  we  compare  these  with  the 
cities  of  the  Upper  Mississippi,  a  marked  difference  is  seen 
St.  Paul,  175,000;  Minneapolis,  200,000;  Dubuque,  50,000 
Des  Moines,  70,000 ;  Peoria,  70,000 ;  La  Crosse,  30,000 
Davenport,  42,000 ;   Quincy,  45,000, 


THE  OHIO   BIVEE    VALLEY 


149 


A^  compared  with  the  Upper  Mississippi,  the  Ohio  is 
used  much  more  for  commerce,  although  the  floods  and 
drouth  along  the  Ohio  are  more  extreme.  Pittsburg  and 
Allegheny,  at  the  head  of  the  Ohio,  correspond  well  with 
St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis  as  centres  of  trade,  though  one 
is  a  level  country  and  the  other  in  the  edge  of  the  moun- 
tains.    The  coal,  iron,  and  petroleum  of  the  Upper  Ohio 


Fig.  45. 
An  Ohio  River  steamboat. 


are  as  important  as  the  wheat  and  lumber  of  the  Twin 
Cities. 

In  the  early  settlement  of  the  Ohio  Valley,  more  than 
one  hundred  years  ago,  the  Ohio  River  and  its  chief  tribu- 
taries were  the  great  highways  of  travel.  From  Pittsburg 
the  eastern  settlers  went  down  the  Ohio  in  boats  and  settled 
at  Marietta,  Cincinnati,  and  many  other  places.  As  there 
were  no  good  roads  through  the  vast  woods,  no  railroads  or 
canals,  the  river  became  extremely  important,  and  the  main 
channel  of  the  Ohio  was  thronged  with  boats  and  steamers. 


150 


TYPE  STUDIES 


The  early  settlers  at  Nashville  came  in  boats  from  east 
Tennessee  down  the  whole  length  of  the  Tennessee  River 
to  the  Ohio,  and  up  the  Cumberland  to  Nashville.  To 
assist  navigation  before  railroads  became  important,  three 
different  canals  were  built  connecting  the  Ohio  River  with 
Lake  Erie ;  one  along  the  Scioto  River,  one  from  Cincin- 
nati northward  along  the  Miami  and  Maumee,  and  one  by 
way  of  the  Wabash.  ^     Parts  of  these  canals  are  still  in  use. 


Fig.  46. 
Marietta,  the  oldest  town  in  Ohio. 


but  the  building  of  numerous  railroads  has  greatly  dimin- 
ished water  traffic  both  on  the  Ohio  and  larger  rivers  and 
on  the  canals.  The  building  of  the  canal  around  the  falls 
at  Louisville  and  the  construction  of  dams  and  locks  in  the 
Monongahela  and  other  rivers  have  greatly  improved  the 
navigation  of  these  channels. 

Some  of  the  most  interesting  stories  in  American  history 

1  Beginning  in  1826,  658  miles  of  canal  were  built  in  Ohio  at  a  cost 
of  $14,688,000,  besides  improvements  in  the  river  channels  by  means 
of  dams,  feeders,  etc. 


THE  OHIO   RIVER    VALLEY  151 

are  those  of  Boone,  Robertson,  and  Sevier,  who  climbed 
over  the  Alleghany  Mountains  from  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina  and  descended  into  the  great  forests  and  hunting- 
grounds  of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky.  This  region,  so 
beautiful  and  delightful  t6  the  hunter  and  pioneer,  was  also 
known  as  the  "  dark  and  bloody  ground,"  on  account  of  the 
fierce  conflict  between  the  northern  and  southern  Indians 
among  these  forests.  As  the  white  men  began  to  settle 
in  these  ancient  hunting-grounds  of  the  Indians,  many 
bloody  conflicts  were  fought  between  them.  The  Indians 
north  of  the  Ohio  often  crossed  into  Kentucky  and  attacked 
the  forts  which  Boone  and  others  had  built  on  the  banks 
of  the  Kentucky  and  other  rivers,  killing  and  capturing 
men,  women,  and  children. 

During  the  Revolutionary  War  the  English  combined 
with  the  northern  Indians  to  make  trouble  for  the  Ken- 
tucky settlers.  Then  George  Rogers  Clark,  with  his 
backwoodsmen  from  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  descended 
the  Ohio  in  boats,  captured  Vincennes  and  Kaskaskia,  and 
compelled  both  the  Indians  and  English  to  make  peace  and 
acknowledge  the  power  of  the  Americans  far  north  of  the 
Ohio  River. 

In  the  same  way,  the  southern  Indians,  Cherokees  and 
Creeks,  were  aroused  against  the  early  settlers  of  Tennessee, 
but  under  the  leadership  of  Sevier  and  Robertson  the 
Indians  were  defeated. 

The  region  of  Pittsburg  and  Monongahela  had  been 
made  famous  before  the  Revolution  by  Washington's 
journey  to  the  French  posts  from  Virginia,  and  later  by 
Braddock's  defeat  and  the  final  capture  of  Fort  Pitt  by  the 
English  and  Americans  at  the  close  of  the  last  French  and 
Indian  War. 


152  TYPE  STUDIES 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  Civil  War,  in  1861,  the  Ohio  River 
was  the  boundary  line  between  the  free  states  and  the 
slave  states.  Negroes  held  in  slavery  in  Kentucky  often 
escaped  across  the  Ohio  and  with  the  assistance  of  friendly 
whites  made  their  way  across  Ohio  to  Canada.  This  gave 
rise  to  what  was  known  as  the  underground  railway,  as 
the  fugitives  were  carried  northward  secretly,  often  at 
night. 

During  the  Civil  War  the  valleys  of  the  Tennessee  and 
Cumberland  were  made  notable  by  important  battles  as 
at  Fort  Henry  and  Fort  Donelson,  Pittsburg  Landing, 
Chattanooga,  Knoxville,  and  Nashville. 

Instead  of  reviewing  the  facts  of  the  Upper  Mississippi 
and  of  the  Ohio  Valley  separately  and  by  merely  repeating 
them  for  each,  it  will  be  advantageous  to  review  them 
together,  comparing  them,  item  by  item,  as  follows :  — 

Which  has  the  larger  area,  the  Upper  Mississippi  or  the 
Ohio  ?  Compare  the  states  drained  by  the  one  and  the 
other  together.  Which  has  the  larger  or  more  important 
tributary  streams  ?  For  example  the  Tennessee  River  is 
1200  miles  long,  the  Illinois  is  500  and  each  is  navigable 
about  one-half  of  its  length.  Which  has  the  greater  forest 
areas,  the  Upper  Mississippi  or  the  Ohio  Valley  ?  What 
are  the  great  agricultural  products  of  the  two  sections  ? 
How  do  the  chief  cities  of  the  Ohio  Valley  compare  in  size 
with  those  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  ?  There  are  seven 
cities  in  the  Ohio  Valley  with  100,000  or  more  population 
each,  and  with  a  total  population  of  1,505,000.  In  the 
Upper  Mississippi  Valley  there  are  but  two  cities,  St.  Paul 
and  Minneapolis,  with  more  than  100,000  each  and  the 
sum  of  their  population  is  375,000.  An  examination  of 
these    figures    will    show    that    along    the    Ohio    River 


THE  OHIO  BIVEli    VALLEY  153 

there  is  a  much  denser  population  than  along  the  Missis- 
sippi. Why  ?  Which  of  these  valleys  has  greater  scenic 
attractions,  and  more  places  of  historical  interest  ?  In  the 
Ohio  Valley  are  the  mountain  gorges  of  the  Allegheny 
and  Monongahela,  the  Kanawha,  Cumberland,  Tennessee, 
and  other  rivers  rising  in  the  western  ridges  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies  and  Chautauqua  Lake  ;  there  are  also  Mammoth 
Cave,  the  falls  at  Louisville,  the  bluffs  and  hills  along  the 
Upper  Ohio,  the  Indian  mounds,  the  valleys  of  eastern 
Tennessee  and  middle  Tennessee,  Chattanooga  and  Look- 
out Mountain,  Fort  Donelson  and  Fort  Henry,  Cumber- 
land Gap,  and  other  places  of  historical  interest.  Along 
the  Upper  Mississippi  are  Lake  Pepin,  Fort  Snelling, 
Minnehaha,  the  falls  at  Minneapolis,  the  lake  region  at  the 
sources  of  the  Mississippi,  Mille  Lac,  the  dalles  of  the  Wis- 
consin, the  great  pipe-stone  quarry,  and  the  bluffs  along 
the  Mississippi ;  also  Starved  Rock,  Utica,  and  Peoria  along 
the  Illinois. 


MINNEAPOLIS 

Why  has  Minneapolis  grown  in  a  few  years  to  be  such 
an  important  city  ?  It  is  but  ten  miles  from  the  centre  of 
Minneapolis  to  the  centre  of  St.  Paul,  and  the  city  of  St. 
Paul  was  large  and  prosperous  as  a  trading  point  and 
capital  long  before  Minneapolis  was  thought  of.     In  1849, 


Fig.  47. 

St.  Anthony  Falls,  in  the  Mississippi,  around  which  Minneapolis  has  grown. 
These  falls  furnish  power  for  a  number  of  great  flour-mills. 


the  first  settler  staked  off  his  claim  at  Minneapolis  near 
the  falls.  In  1890  the  city  had  164,700  people.  This  is  a 
very  marvellous  growth  and  must  be  based  upon  very  im- 
portant and  far-reaching  facts.  St.  Paul,  for  many  years 
in  its  early  history,  was  a  place  for  the  white  settlers  and 
traders  to  meet  the  Indians.  Before  the  war  the  agricul- 
ture of  Minnesota  was  not  much  developed,  and  the  lumber 
business  also  was  scarcely  begun.  But  when  railroads 
began  to  reach  out  to  the  prairie  regions  west  of  Minne- 
apolis and  St.  Paul,  and  as  great  numbers  of  settlers  came 

154 


MINNEAPOLIS 


156 


in  from  the  eastern  states  and  the  Scandinavians  and  Ger- 
mans from  Europe,  Minneapolis  began  to  grow. 

The  falls  at  St.  Anthony  were  long  noted  for  their 
beauty  and  grandeur  before  cities  grew  up  beside  them. 
Of  course  the  water-power  was  looked  upon  as  of  great 
value  and  when  the  pine  logs  began  to  be  cut  out  of  the 
northern  forests  and  floated  down  the  upper  river,  it  was 
found  that  these  falls  were  the  best  location  for  mills  to 
saw  up  the  logs.     At  first  the   water-power  was    chiefly 


Fig.  48. 
Lumbermen  engaged  in  floating  logs  down-stream  from  the  forest. 

used  by  the  sawmills,  and  as  the  prairie  regions  to  the 
west  settled  up  there  was  more  demand  for  lumber  for 
building  purposes.  In  order  to  distribute  this  lumber  and 
other  products  of  the  prairie  country  to  the  west,  railroads 
were  built  branching  out  from  Minneapolis.  As  this  busi- 
ness of  logging  and  lumbering  grew,  the  whole  Upper 
Mississippi  with  its  tributaries  became  a  network  of  rivers 
and  logging  camps  for  collecting  logs  to  the  mills  at 
Minneapolis  and  other  mill  towns  on  the  river.  The 
large  lumber  firms  had  big  sawmills  at  Minneapolis  and 


156 


TYPE  STUDIES 


thousands  of  acres  of  timber  lands  in  the  woods  to  the 
north,  with  their  lumber  camps  in  winter  and  their  rafting 
steamers  for  guiding  the  log  rafts  south  at  the  time  of  the 
spring  floods.  Many  of  the  wealthiest  men  and  companies 
of  Minneapolis  and  other  river  cities  have  acquired  their 
fortunes  in  this  business  and  have  built  them  splendid 
homes  in  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis.  Closely  connected 
with  the  sawmills  are  the  planing-mills  for  preparing 
dressed  lumber,  doors,  sashes,  and  interior  finish.     Large 


Fig.  49. 

Logs  in  the  river  near  Minneapolis.    One  of  the  bridges  across  the  Mississippi 
River  at  this  point  is  seen  in  the  background. 

factories  were  also  established  for  the  manufacture  of 
furniture,  agricultural  implements,  wagons  and  carriages, 
cooperage,  and  other  kinds  of  woodwork.  All  these  lum- 
ber products  were  then  shipped  westward  over  the  diverg- 
ing railroad  lines  into  western  Minnesota,  the  Dakotas, 
Iowa,  and  Nebraska.  This  rapidly  growing  prairie  region, 
extending  even  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  from  Missouri 
to  British  America,  demanded  a  vast  amount  of  lumber  for 
its  rapidly  developing  cities  and  farms.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  Minneapolis,  because  of  its  position  on  the 
river,  water-power,  and  mills,  should  soon  be  the  great  cen- 


MINNEAPOLIS  157 

tre  of  the  lumber  business  of  the  northwest.  It  collected 
logs  from  a  large  forest  area  on  the  Upper  Mississippi, 
worked  over  this  raw  material  in  the  sawmills,  planing- 
mills,  and  furniture  and  other  factories,  and,  by  means  of 
the  many  railroad  lines  spreading  out  westward,  distrib- 
uted this  vast  product  over  a  very  extensive  region  of 
prairie  country.  It  is  also  clear  that  this  important  lum- 
bering industry  led  thousands  of  people  to  find  homes  in 
Minneapolis  and  to  build  up  the  city. 

As  western  Minnesota  was  rapidly  settled  up  with  in- 
dustrious farmers,  who  raised  great  fields  of  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  corn,  and  other  grains,  besides  thousands  of  cattle 
and  hogs,  they  naturally  shipped  their  grain  and  other 
produce  over  the  railroads  to  Minneapolis.  It  was  not 
long  before  the  rich  soil  of  the  western  prairies  and  river 
valleys  was  found  to  be  one  of  the  best  and  largest  wheat- 
growin.;>^  regions  of  the  world.  Not  only  are  the  rich 
upland  prairies  of  southern  and  western  Minnesota  very 
fruitful  in  grain,  where  thousands  and  even  millions  of 
acres  are  yellow  with  waving  grain  in  July,  but  the  Red 
River  Valley  of  the  north  is  extremely  fertile  and  favor- 
able to  wheat.  "•  Close  to  the  doors  of  the  Twin  Cities 
lies  this  Red  River  Valley,  considered  by  some  the  third 
richest  agricultural  region  in  the  world.  It  takes  in  many ' 
counties  of  western  Minnesota  and  the  eastern  counties  of 
the  Dakotas.  It  reaches  up  into  Canada  beyond  Winni- 
peg, and  its  southern  end  is  the  richer.  It  is  a  level 
prairie  land  of  black  soil  that  once  formed  the  bed  or 
deposit  of  an  ancient  sea.  This  region  pours  its  wealth  of 
grain  into  the  two  cities,  there  to  exchange  it  for  merchan- 
dise. The  farmers  sometimes  have  raised  enough  grain  in 
one  year  to  pay  for  their  farms.  One  farmer  made 
),000  in  one  season." 


158 


TYPE  STUDIES 


There  are  8,832,000  acres  in  the  valley,  and  in  1891 
only  about  one-third  was  under  cultivation,  not  all  in 
wheat,  but  30,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  were  grown, 
worth  about  $27,000,000.  Most  of  the  wheat  of  the 
northwest  finds  its  way  to  Minneapolis,  where  the  big 
mills  convert  it  into  flour.  In  1871  only  two  car  loads  of 
wheat  were  received  in  Minneapolis.     In  1887  the  Great 

Western     Rail- 


road brought 
33,000,000bush- 
els  to  the  flour- 
mills.  Ofcourse 
a  large  part  of 
this  wheat  was 
ground  up  into 
flour,  put  in 
sacks  or  barrels, 
and  shipped 
eastward  by  way 


Fig.  50. 
The  Pillsbury-Washburn  flour-mills  at  Minneapolis. 


of  Duluth  and  the  lakes,  or  by  way  of  Chicago,  to  New 
York  and  eastern  states.  A  very  large  part  of  the  flour 
made  in  Minneapolis  is  sent  in  ship  loads  to  Liverpool  or 
Hamburg,  in  Europe.  The  great  railroad  lines  from  the 
Twin  Cities  to  Duluth  and  Chicago  send  long  train  loads 
to  the  east  and  to  Europe,  where  millions  of  people  make 
bread  from  Minneapolis  flour. 

It  is  found,  therefore,  that  Minneapolis  is  the  great  cen- 
tre of  trade  and  manufacture  in  a  second  important  staple 
product,  wheat;  that  it  collects  this  product  from  a  broad 
area  by  means  of  railroads,  manufactures  it  in  the  big 
flour-mills,  and  then  distributes  it  over  the  eastern  states 
by  means  of  railroads  and  water  ways,  and  even  sends 


MINNEAPOLIS  159 

millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  food  to  England,  Germany, 
and  other  European  countries.  This  vast  business  of 
wheat  and  flour  milling  also  collects  thousands  of  people 
in  Minneapolis,  who  build  homes  there,  and  many  of  the 
wealthy  men  of  the  northwest  have  based  their  fortunes 
upon  this  great  business. 

There  is  still  a  third  line  of  business  in  Minneapolis 
that  is  as  important  as  the  two  already  described.  Manu- 
factured goods  of  all  kinds,  as  dry-goods,  machinery, 
clothing,  instruments,  tools,  paper  and  books,  medicines, 
groceries,  china  and  porcelain,  hardware,  farm  implements, 
cutlery,  and  a  hundred  other  important  manufactures  of 
the  eastern  states  and  Europe  are  shipped  to  the  trading 
and  wholesale  houses  of  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul,  whence 
they  are  sent  out  over  the  railroads  and  distributed  to  the 
prairie  and  even  mountain  regions  to  the  west  and  north- 
west. This  immense  trade  centres  in  Minneapolis  and 
St.  Paul,  which  thus  make  a  great  depot  for  the  collection 
and  distribution  of  products.  The  handling,  sale,  and 
shipment  of  all  these  manufactured  goods  call  another 
large  class  of  people  to  the  Twin  Cities,  and  give  the  great 
railroad  lines  a  large  share  of  their  business. 

As  a  result  of  the  description  of  the  lines  of  trade  and 
commerce  centring  in  Minneapolis,  we  are  able  to  see 
partly  the  reason  for  its  rapid  growth  and  its  great  im- 
portance. It  is  easy  to  see  that  Minneapolis  not  only  has 
a  fine  location  on  the  river,  which  naturally  makes  it  the 
centre  of  the  lumber  trade,  and  a  vast  water-power  that 
makes  milling  cheap  and  profitable,  but  that  by  means  of 
the  river  and  the  railroads  it  is  brought  into  the  closest 
relations  with  the  extensive  pineries  of  the  north,  the  fer- 
tile prairies  and  river  valleys  of  the  northwest,  and  with 


160  TYPE  STUDIES 

the  great  centres  of  manufacturing  and  population  in  the 
east.  The  lake  ports,  Daluth,  Milwaukee,  and  Chicago, 
enable  it  to  send  goods  with  small  expense  to  New  York 
and  Europe.  The  Mississippi  River  on  the  south  brings 
St.  Paul  in  close  communication  by  boat  and  cheap  freight 
with  the  whole  Mississippi  Valley  from  Louisiana  to  Pitts- 
burg and  Kansas  City  and  farther.  In  early  days  this 
connection  of  St.  Paiil  with  the  river  was  very  important, 
as  nearly  all  heavy  goods  reached  St.  Paul  by  boat,  but 
since  the  railroads  have  become  so  important  the  river 
trade  has  grown  less. 

We  have  already  seen  that  Minneapolis  was  a  natural 
centre  for  the  manufacture  of  lumber  and  flour,  but  after 
these  great  industries  were  well  started,  many  other  large 
manufacturing  plants  became  established,  such  as  boot  and 
shoe  factories,  furniture  and  wagon  shojjs,  smelting  works, 
packing  houses,  and  car  works  and  machine  shops,  as  well 
as  many  smaller  manufacturing  industries.  The  result  is, 
that  though  of  so  short  a  growth  Minneapolis  has  already 
become  a  centre  for  very  large  manufacturing  interests, 
and  the  products  are  shipped  to  the  broad  regions  of  the 
west  that  Minneapolis  supplies.  These  industries  also 
have  contributed  to  the  rapid  growth  and  wealth  of  the 
city.  It  should  be  remembered  also  that  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  settlers,  seeking  farms  and  homes,  have  come 
from  New  England  and  the  northern  states  as  well  as  from 
England  and  Scandinavia  to  develop  the  country  and  in- 
crease its  population  and  wealth. 

Besides  all  these  wide-reaching  influences,  the  city  has 
a  beautiful  and  elevated  location  above  the  river,  with  the 
best  of  drainage,  with  a  natural  forest  that  still  shades 
much  of  the  city,  and  half  a  dozen  beautiful  lakes  and  fine 


MINNEAPOLIS  161 

parks  within  the  city  limits  or  near  them.  The  streets  of 
the  city  have  been  laid  out  on  a  broad,  liberal  plan,  and 
the  street-car  service  is  excellent.  Many  very  fine  public 
buildings  and  business  blocks  adorn  the  principal  streets. 
The  public  library,  with  forty  thousand  volumes,  is  an 
elegant  and  imposing  structure.  The  Guarantee  Loan 
Building,  fourteen  stories  high,  is  one  of  the  finest  build- 
ings in  America.  The  State  University,  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  river,  and  other  public  institutions  are  on  the 
same  grand  scale.  It  is  a  very  healthy  city,  and  is 
especially  noted  for  its  great  number  of  pleasant  homes. 

The  city  of  St.  Paul,  only  ten  miles  away,  is  not  ex- 
celled by  Minneapolis  in  progressive  spirit  and  enterprise. 
It  is  especially  the  centre  of  the  wholesale  trade  of  the 
northwest,  and  has  excelled  Minneapolis  in  the  extent 
and  variety  of  manufactures.  Some  of  its  streets  of  ele- 
gant residences  along  the  bluff  are  among  the  finest  in 
America.  Its  business  streets  near  the  river  are  some- 
what narrow  and  cramped,  but  farther  up  along  the  bluffs 
the  city  is  laid  out  on  a  generous  plan. 

It  has  been  thought  that  these  two  cities  would  some 
day  join  their  forces  and  make  one  great  city.  Already 
their  suburbs  touch  each  other,  but  the  rivalry  between 
them  is  very  lively  and  sometimes  bitter.  It  is  estimated 
that  before  many  years  the  two  cities  will  contain  a  million 
people. 

In  conclusion,  it  will  be  profitable  to  compare  Minneap- 
olis and  St.  Paul  with  other  great  centres  of  trade  in  our 
own  country  which  are  somewhat  similarly  located.  Pitts- 
burg and  Allegheny  city,  especially,  at  the  head  of  regu- 
lar steamboating  on  the  Ohio,  may  well  be  compared  with 
the  Twin  Cities  of  Minnesota.     Pittsburg  is  also  the  cen- 


162  TYPE  STUDIES 

tre  of  vast  exchanges  of  raw  products  and  of  manufactures 
from  these  products.  Water  and  railway  traffic  are  also 
equally  well  illustrated.  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul  are 
far  away  from  the  coal  supply,  and  that  has  somewhat 
hindered  the  growth  of  manufactures.  How  is  coal  ob- 
tained cheapest  in  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis  ?  It  may  be 
well  also  to  locate  on  the  map  carefully  the  great  wheat 
and  lumber  districts  that  are  tributary  to  St.  Paul  and 
Minneapolis  and  to  draw  in  outline  the  states  included. 
Compare  these  also  with  the  corn  belt  and  the  prairie 
regions  farther  south.  Kansas  City  is  also  a  place  of 
modern  growth  that  may  well  be  compared  as  to  its  advan- 
tages with  Minneapolis.  It  also  controls  the  trade  of  a 
large  area  and  collects  and  distributes  products  on  an  ex- 
tensive scale.  Later,  when  we  come  to  study  the  eastern 
states,  the  Twin  Cities  may  also  be  compared  with  Albany 
and  Troy,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Hudson. 

A  full  and  detailed  description  of  a  single  great  trade 
centre  like  Minneapolis  will  enable  the  children  to  see  the 
causal  influences  which  have  really  produced  a  great  city. 
The  lines  of  traffic  cross  each  other  in  different  directions, 
and  they  see  that  where  raw  products  are  collected  in 
such  vast  quantities  manufacturing  naturally  follows. 
Minneapolis  is  an  excellent  type  of  these  things,  and 
stands  out  with  sufficient  distinctness  to  make  these  ideas 
apparent.  As  they  study  other  cities  in  their  later  lessons 
they  will  be  inclined  to  look  for  the  causes  which  make 
and  keep  alive  the  importance  of  great  cities. 

Reference  :  Harper's  Magazine,  March,  1892,  "  The  Capitals  of 
the  Northwest.'* 


k 


LAKE   SUPERIOR 

"Lake  Superior  is  the  largest  lake  in  the  world, 
and  the  largest  body  of  fresh  water.  It  is  380  miles 
in  length,  and  160  miles  across  at  the  widest  part.  Its 
watery  area  of  32,000  square  miles  proves  it  to  be  the 
size  of  the  state  of  Indiana,  or  four  times  as  big  as 
Massachusetts.  It  is  about  600  feet  above  the  sea-level, 
but  the  government  charts  show  that  in  its  deepest 
parts  the  water  has  a  depth  of  1386  feet,  so  that  there, 
at  least,  the  bottom  of  the  lake  is  more  than  700  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  sea.  North  of  Keweenaw  Point, 
on  the  south  side,  there  is  a  depth  of  1008  feet,  and 
great  depths,  above  500  feet,  are  scattered  all  about 
the  lake.     Its  shore  line  is  1500  miles  in  length." 

The  lake  fills  a  great  basin,  which  has  a  high,  rocky 
rim  all  about  it.  The  short,  steep  slope  is  toward  the 
lake,  while  the  long,  gradual  slope,  after  reaching  the 
summit  of  the  ridge,  is  away  from  the  lake.  More 
than  200  small  rivers  pour  their  waters  into  Lake  Su- 
perior, but  they  are  mostly  short,  with  swift,  foaming 
currents  as  they  come  tumbling  over  the  rocks,  down 
the  steep  slopes  of  the  country  surrounding  the  lake. 
These  rivers  are  not  large  and  smooth  enough  for  boat- 
ing, but  they  supply  splendid  water-power  for  mills,  which 
will  be  used  in  time.  The  St.  Louis  River,  at  the  head  of 
Lake  Superior,  is  one  of  the  largest  of  these  streams,  and 
is  often  spoken  of  as  the  source  of  the  St.  Lawrence. 
This  river  makes  some  big  leaps  and  falls  as  it  descends 

163 


164 


TYPE  STUDIES 


the  rocky  ledge  between  the  plateau  of  Minnesota  and  the 
lower  level  of  the  lake.  The  rivers  tributary  to  Lake  Su- 
perior drain  a  territory  of  53,000  square  miles,  or  nearly 
as  large  a  space  as  Illinois. 

The  shores  ol  the  lake  are  very  rocky,  and  only  in  a 
few  places  are  there  sandy  or  level  beaches,  especially 
along  the    southern    shore.     Along  the  north  shore  the 

steep,  rocky 
cliffs  rise  a  thou- 
sand feet  or 
more  above  the 
water,  and  the 
lake  is  deep  at 
their  base. 
There  are  also 
many  deep  bays 
and  harbors 
along  this  north- 
ern shore.  The 
steep  cliffs  and 
deep  water  and 
bays  of  this 
northern  coast 
make  the  shore  scenery  of  the  lake  grand  and  impres- 
sive like  that  of  the  ocean  on  rocky  shores.  Along 
the  central  part  of  the  southern  shore,  where  the  lake  is 
widest,  are  the  high  sandstone  cliffs  known  as  the  pic- 
tured rocks.  As  the  winds  and  storms  of  the  north  drive 
across  the  lake,  the  great  waves  beat  upon  this  southern 
shore  with  much  fury  and  have  washed  out  and  chiselled 
the  rocks  into  many  curious  and  interesting  shapes.  The 
sand  and  gravel  have  also  been  piled  up  beyond  the  shore 


Fig.  51. 
Wave-cut  cliff  with  beach  in  small  bay,  Lake  Superior. 


LAKE  SUPERIOR  165 

line  in  white  hills  two  and  three  hundred  feet  high.  The 
shores  on  all  sides  are  clothed  with  dark  evergreen 
forests,  which  extend  far  northward  into  Canada  and 
southward  into  Wisconsin  and  Michigan.  As  the  shores 
for  many  miles  are  not  settled,  fine  hunting  is  still  met  in 
these  wildernesses  of  forests  and  streams. 

"At  present  there  are  trout  a  plenty  in  the  streams 
that  flow  into  the  great  lakes  through  the  beautiful  for- 
ests which  clothe  that  enormous  tract,  in  which,  south  of 
Superior  alone,  there  are  said  to  be  500  or  600  little  lakes. 
Exactly  like  it,  from  the  sportsman's  point  of  view,  is  the 
region  north  of  the  lake,  where  the  land  looks,  upon  a 
detailed  map,  like  a  great  sponge,  all  glistening  with 
water,  so  crowded  is  its  surface  with  lakes  and  streams. 
In  the  north  are  the  caribou  and  all  the  animals  that  the 
fur  traders  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  value.  South  of 
the  lake  there  are  no  animals  larger  than  the  deer,  but 
deer  are  abundant  and  bear  are  still  numerous.  In  the 
fishing  season  a  man  may  feast  on  trout,  black-bass, 
pickerel,  maskalonge,  partridge,  venison,  and  rabbit. 

''The  city  of  Marquette,  on  Iron  Bay,  in  the  centre  of 
the  most  picturesque  part  of  the  south  shore,  gets  its  im- 
portance as  a  shipping  port  for  ore  and  lumber,  but  it  oc- 
cupies the  most  beautiful  site  and  is  the  most  beautiful 
town,  as  seen  from  the  water,  of  all  those  that  have  grown 
up  on  the  lake.  It  has  a  large  and  busy  trading  district 
on  the  sandy  shore  of  the  lake,  but  the  fine  residence 
districts  surmount  a  high  bluff  which  half  encircles  the 
town.  Ridge  Street,  two  hundred  feet  above  the  lake, 
may  easily  become  one  of  the  finest  avenues  in  America, 
and  already  it  numbers  some  of  the  most  artistic  and  costly 
houses   in  the  Lake   Superior  region.     With  its    drives 


166  TYPE  STUDIES 

and  neighboring  forests,  with  its  fishing  streams  and  lake, 
it  deserves  to  rank  as  a  summer  resort."  Presque  Isle 
Park,  on  a  high  rock  promontory  overlooking  the  lake, 
with  a  forest  above  and  the  steep  rocks  below,  is  hol- 
lowed out  into  caves  which  a  boat  may  enter  from  the 
lake.  The  Pictured  Rocks  also  are  only  a  short  dis- 
tance east  of  Marquette,  so  that  this  entire  region  is 
one  of  great  interest.  This  southern  shore  is  also  very 
important  on  account  of  the  great  iron  mines  in  the 
Marquette  range  (seventy-two  in  number)  and  the  large 
copper  mines  in  the  Keweenaw  peninsula.  The  largest 
ore   docks  in  the  world  are  seen  at   Marquette. 

There  are  also  many  islands  in  the  lake  which  add  to  the 
interesting  scenery.  "Numerous  islands  are  scattered 
about  the  north  side  of  the  lake,  many  rising  precipitously 
to  great  heights  from  deep  water,  some  presenting  castel- 
lated walls  of  basalt,  and  others  rising  in  granite  peaks 
to  various  elevations  up  to  1300  fe^t  above  the  water" 
(Encyclopedia  Britannica).  The  northern  shore  is  also 
rocky  and  steep.  "  Its  famed  and  stately  walls  of  rock 
delve  straight  downward  into  the  water  and  rise  sheer 
above  it  without  giving  nature  the  slightest  chance  to 
make  a  litter  of  dirt  and  rocks  at  their  feet.  While  other 
rocky  shores  of  other  waters  stand  apart  or  merely  wet 
their  toes  in  the  fluid,  those  monsters  wade  in  neck-deep 
and  only  expose  their  heads  in  the  sunlight,  sometimes  200 
fathoms  from  the  bottom.  Terrible  prison  walls  these 
become  to  the  shipwrecked  mariners,  for  they  extend  in 
reaches  sometimes  twenty-five  miles  long  without  offering 
a  finger-hold  for  self-rescue.  The  largest  of  the  islands 
is  a  part  of  the  United  States.  In  fact  the  greater  part  of 
the  lake  itself  belongs  to  the  United  States,  although  the 
northern  part  goes  with  Canada." 


LAKE  SUPEIUOB  167 

The  fisheries  form  an  important  business  on  the  shores 
and  islands.  "  The  lake  and  the  vast  region  around  it  are 
the  sportsman's  paradise  and  a  treasury  of  wealth  for  those 
who  deal  in  the  products  of  the  wilderness,  —  furs,  fish, 
and  lumber.  At  little  Port  Arthur  alone  (on  the  north 
shore)  the  figures  for  the  fishing  industry  for  the  market 
are  astonishing.  In  1888  the  fishermen  there  caught  500,- 
000  pounds  of  whitefish,  360,000  pounds  of  lake-trout, 
90,000  pounds  of  pickerel,  48,000  pounds  of  sturgeon,  and 
30,000  pounds  of  other  fish,  or  more  than  a  million  pounds 
in  all.  They  did  this  with  an  investment  of  $3800  in 
boats  and  $10,000  in  gill  and  pound  nets.  This  yield 
nearly  all  went  to  the  Chicago  Packing  Company,  and  it  is 
in  the  main  Chicago  and  Cleveland  capital  that  is  con- 
trolling lake  fisheries.  The  whitefish,  in  the  opinion  of 
many,  is  the  most  delicious  fish  known  to  Americans.  The 
lake-trout  are  mere  food  ;  they  are  peculiar  to  our  inland 
waters,  they  average  five  to  ten  pounds  in  weight,  and  yet 
grow  to  weigh  a  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  "  (^Harper's 
Magazine^ . 

The  fish  are  caught  in  nets,  and,  by  the  use  of  small- 
meshed  nets,  the  fishermen  claim  that  millions  of  small 
fish  are  killed  each  year  and  the  fishing  is  thus  being  seri- 
ously damaged.  The  fish  commission  has  been  trying  to 
cultivate  greater  numbers  of  the  best  fish  by  putting  "  fry" 
yearly  into  the  lakes.  This,  however,  it  is  claimed,  does 
not  repair  the  damage  done  by  the  use  of  small-meshed  nets. 

The  water  of  the  lake  is  clear  and  cold  at  all  seasons. 
It  is  almost  ice  cold  in  summer,  so  that  sailors  and  fisher- 
men are  quickly  chilled  by  falling  into  it ;  but  in  winter  it 
does  not  freeze  over,  so  great  is  the  quantity  of  water  and 
so  slowly  does  it  change  its  temperature.     The  water  is  so 


168 


TYPE  STUDIES 


clear  that  one  can  easily  see  objects  at  a  depth  of  twenty 
feet,  and  the  sailors  claim  even  to  a  depth  of  forty  feet. 
When  the  water  is  shallow  it  is  distinctly  green  ;  but  in 
deep  waters  it  changes  to  blue  when  seen  at  a  distance, 
and  it  has  varied  hues  and  colors  according  to  the  changes 
of  the  atmosphere  and  sunlight. 

"One  peculiarity  of  Lake  Superior  cannot  be  too 
strongly  dwelt  upon  or  exaggerated.  That  is  its  purit}^,  — 
the  wonderful  clearness  and  freshness  of  it  and  of  its  at- 
mosphere and  of  its  bor- 
ders. It  must  become  the 
seat  of  a  hundred  summer 
resorts  when  the  people 
visit  it  and  succumb  to  its 
spell."  Already  two  of  its 
summer  resorts  have  be- 
come famous,  Munising 
and  Nepigon,  while  there 
is  room  and  opportunity 
for  many  more  along  its  fifteen  hundred  miles  of  rocky 
and  forest-covered  coast-line. 

Within  the  last  few  years  the  commerce  of  the  lake  has 
grown  into  very  great  importance.  The  lake  surface  lies 
twenty-two  feet  higher  than  Lake  Huron  and  Lake  Michi- 
gan, and  until  a  canal  and  lock  were  built  to  connect  the 
commerce  of  Lake  Superior  with  that  of  the  other  lakes 
little  could  be  done  to  develop  the  trade  of  Lake  Su- 
perior's cities.  ''  As  originally  built,  the  canal  in  St. 
Mary's  River  was  a  mile  long,  had  a  width  of  one  hun- 
dred feet  at  the  water  line,  and  a  depth  of  twelve  feet. 
The  locks  were  two  in  number,  each  three  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  in  length,  seventy  feet  in  width.    At  the  time  the 


Fig.  52. 
A  lake  steamer. 


LAKE  SUPERIOR  169 

canal  was  made  these  dimensions  were  sufficient  to  pass 
any  vessel  on  the  lakes  fully  laden,  but  by  1870  it  became 
necessary  to  provide  for  more  rapid  lockage  and  for  the 
passage  of  larger  vessels.  Accordingly  the  old  canal  was 
widened  and  deepened  and  a  new  lock  constructed  five  hun- 
dred and  fifteen  feet  long  and  eighty  feet  wide.  There  is 
now  everywhere  a  navigable  depth  of  sixteen  feet  from 
Lake  Superior  to  Lake  Huron.  In  1883  the  registered 
tonnage  passing  the  canal  was  2,042,295  tons." 

"The  date  of  the  last  enlargement  of  the  lock  is  the 
date  upon  which  to  base  all  computations  as  to  the  lake 
traffic.  The  lock  was  enlarged  and  newly  opened  in  1881. 
Marquette,  the  '  Queen  City  of  Lake  Superior,'  is  an  old 
place  of  former  industry,  but  it  is  a  mere  baby  in  its  pres- 
ent enterprise.  Superior  dates  from  1852  '  on  paper,'  but 
from  1881  in  fact,  while  Duluth  is  only  a  few  years  older. 
Port  Arthur,  the  principal  Canadian  port,  owes  itself  to 
the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  now  about  seven  or  eight 
years  of  age  (1892),  and  many  of  the  future  cities  are  not 
yet  discovered"  (^Harpers  Magazine^  April,  1892).  The 
Canadians  have  also  built  a  canal  on  their  side  of  the 
strait,  so  as  to  be  independent  of  the  United  States.  In 
1890,  9,000,000  tons  of  shipping  passed  through  the 
strait.  But  the  increase  of  shipping  was  so  great  that 
Duluth  and  other  lake  ports  were  greatly  dissatisfied  be- 
cause of  insufficient  lockage.  In  1890  the  depth  of  the 
water  in  the  canal  was  from  14^  feet  to  15|^  feet.  The 
new  government  lock,  built  at  a  cost  of  $4,000,000,  is 
100  feet  wide,  21  feet  deep,  and  1200  feet  long.  On  ac- 
count of  an  accident  to  the  old  lock  it  was  closed  for  a 
short  time.  It  cost  the  companies  who  use  the  canal  a 
loss  of  $1,000,000  and  delayed  about  183  vessels  each  way. 


170 


TYPE  STUDIES 


Since  1881  a  vast  commerce  has  developed  on  Lake  Su- 
perior. The  great  iron  and  copper  mines  all  along  the 
shores  in  Minnesota,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin,  the 
wheat  and  other  grains  from  the  prairies  of  the  north- 
west, loaded  into  ships  at  Duluth  and  Superior,  and  the 
thriving  cities  that  have  sprung  up  like  magic  on  the 
shores  of  this  great  inland  sea,  have  produced  an  amount 
of  traffic  that  is  worth  many  millions  of  dollars.     Duluth 


1 

f  \ 

i 

ir 

k\ 

'  '    1 

:  V  1 

iu 

^ 

^fl 

1 

1     ""----^^'T^^i^'l- 

^zT       -/I  .^ 

Fig.  53. 
A  lake  boat  loading  with  iron  ore  at  the  docks. 

has  been  regarded  as  a  second  Chicago  and  as  a  city  with 
a  great  future.  It  lies  much  nearer  the  great  wheat- 
fields  than  Chicago  and  500  miles  nearer  the  Pacific  Ocean 
at  Puget  Sound.  The  Canadian  and  Northern  Pacific 
railroads  lead  directly  to  Lake  Superior  at  Duluth  and 
Port  Arthur. 

The  whaleback  steamers  at  Duluth  and  Superior  are 
loaded  with  wheat  for  Buffalo.  One  of  them  even  passed 
through  the  Welland  Canal  and  down  the  rapids  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  to  Liverpool.     The  great  ambition  of  the 


LAKE  SUPEBIOn 


171 


Lake  Superior  cities  is  to  secure  a  twenty-foot  waterway 
from  Duluth  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  so  that  large  vessels 
of  6000  tons  burden  can  sail  directly  for  Europe.  From 
Marquette,  Duluth,  and  other  cities  of  Lake  Superior, 
there  are  shipments  every  year  of  millions  of  tons  of  iron 
and  copper  ore,  and  of  wheat.  The  lumber  trade  through 
the  canal  is  also  very  important  and  the  shipment  of  coal 
from  Pennsylvania  to  Duluth  and  Superior  supplies  the 
returning  vessels  a  large  part  of  their  cargo.     In  this  way 


Fig.  54. 
Lake  vessels,  the  one  in  front  being  called  a  whaleback. 

Minnesota  secures  a  comparatively  cheap  supply  of  coal, 
although  the  distance  from  the  coal-fields  is  great. 

The  season  for  navigation  on  Lake  Superior  lasts  usually 
about  eight  months,  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the 
middle  of  December.  The  sailor's  life  on  the  lake  is  a 
severe  one.  The  storms  are  as  rough  as  upon  the  ocean. 
In  midwinter,  although  the  lake  is  not  frozen  over,  it  is 
not  navigable,  as  the  shores  are  lined  with  ice  for  four  or 
five  miles  out  from  the  land.  "  There  are  two  obstructions 
for  which  Superior  is  notorious  and  they  rank  next  to  the 
ice  and  still  further  limit  navigation  for  some  lines  of 


172 


TYPE  STUDIES 


ships.  These  evils  are  the  fogs  and  the  snow-storms. 
Of  these  two  the  fogs  are  the  more  numerous  and  the 
snows  the  more  dreaded.  In  the  summer,  Dame  Superior 
wears  her  fogs  ahnost  as  a  Turkish  wife  wears  her  veils. 
There  is  a  time  in  August  when  the  only  fogs  are  those 
which  follow  the  rain,  but  the  snow  begins  in  September. 
The  Canadian  Pacific  steamships  are  only  in  service  from 
May  to  October,  and  it  is  the   snow  that   curtails   their 

season.  It  snows 
on  the  Great  Lakes 
as  it  does  on  the 
plains,  in  terrible 
flurries,  during  the 
course  of  which  it 
is  impossible  to  see 
a  foot  ahead,  or  to 
see  at  all.  It  has  a 
way  of  snowing  on 
Superior  as  late  as 
June  and  as  early 
as  September.  As 
for  the  fogs,  though 
they  are  light  and 
often  fleeting  after  midsummer,  they  are  sufficiently  fre- 
quent during  the  rest  of  the  season  of  navigation  to  have 
given  the  lake  a  bad  name  among  sailors,  and  I  had  a 
captain  tell  me  that  he  had  made  seven  voyages  in  suc- 
cession without  seeing  any  lights  on  his  route  from  Port 
Arthur  to  the  Soo." 

Great  railroad  lines  extend  now  from  east  to  west  along 
both  shores,  the  Canadian  Pacific  on  the  north  and  the 
"  Soo  Road  "  on  the  south.     Freight  is  much  cheaper  by 


Fig.  55. 
A  huge  grain  elevator  near  the  waterway. 


LAKE  SUPERIOR  173 

water  than  by  rail,  and  the  freight  rates  by  water  compel 
the  railroads  to  reduce  their  rates.  ''  Those  who  have 
made  the  arguments  for  the  various  lake  ports  show  that 
whereas  in  1868  the  rail  rate  on  grain  from  Chicago  to 
New  York  was  42.6  cents  a  bushel,  it  was  14  cents  in  1885. 
The  water  rate  fell  in  that  time  from  25  cents  a  bushel  to 
4.55  cents.  It  has  kept  from  25  to  67  per  cent  lower  than 
the  rail  rate.  The  value  of  the  waterways  to  the  public 
is  illustrated  in  a  startling  way  by  making  use  of  the 
government  records  of  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal  traffic 
for  1889.  There  passed  through  that  canal  7,516,022  tons, 
carried  an  average  distance  of  790.4  miles  at  0.145  cents  a 
ton  a  mile.  The  railroads  would  have  charged  0.976  cents, 
and  the  business  would  have  cost  the  public  150,000,000 
more  if  the  railroads  had  transacted  it  than  was  charged 
by  the  boatmen."  This  gives  some  notion  of  the  vast 
amount  of  freight  on  our  great  inland  lakes.  Thirty- 
six  millions  of  tons  of  freight  passed  through  the  Detroit 
River  in  one  year,  which  is  much  greater  than  the  tonnage 
of  the  ocean  and  gulf  ports  of  the  entire  United  States. 
A  study  of  these  trade  routes  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  the  Hudson  reveals  the  chief  line  of 
traffic  in  the  United  States,  as  well  as  between  the  United 
States  and  Europe. 

After  studying  Lake  Superior  in  detail  it  will  be  in- 
structive to  make  a  brief  comparative  study  of  the  other 
Great  Lakes,  their  shores  and  cities,  their  size  and  com- 
merce. Any  good  cyclopaedia  will  furnish  sufficient  data 
from  which  to  compare  the  other  lakes  with  Superior. 
The  chief  lake  ports  should  also  be  studied  and  compared 
in  their  relative  importance  and  advantage  for  trade.  In 
Tilden's  "  Commercial  Geography,"  pp.  74,  75,  is  a  valuable 


174  TYPE  STUDIES 

though  brief  treatment  of  the  Nine  Lake  Ports  (Leach, 
She  well  &  Sanborn,  Chicago). 

In  the  later  study  of  geography  in  America  and  in  other 
continents  such  a  knowledge  of  our  Great  Lakes,  their 
extent,  scenery,  climate,  commerce,  and  cities  will  be  help^ 
ful    and   should   be   called   up   again    in    frequent    com 
parisons. 


THE  SURFACE  OF  TENNESSEE 

An  examination  of  the  map  of  the  United  States  will 
show  that  Tennessee  from  east  to  west  includes  the  whole 
slope  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  from  the  highest  summit 
of  the  Alleghany  range  to  the  bottom-lands  and  swamps 
of  the  great  river.  In  Tennessee  and  Alabama,  also,  we  find 
the  nearest  approach  of  the  mountains  to  the  Mississippi. 


Copynght,  1904,  by  A.  T.  Barrett.  _ 

Fig.  56. 

Relief  Map  of  Tennessee. 

A  study  of  the  surface  features  of  Tennessee  not  only 
shows  some  of  the  chief  varieties  of  mountain  and  plain, 
and  their  agricultural  and  mineral  products,  but  gives 
them  in  a  series  of  parallel  districts.  The  Tennessee  River 
crosses  the  state  twice  from  north  to  south,  and  with  the 
Cumberland  gives  the  state  three  distinct  valleys,  with  the 
mountains  or  elevated  ridges  between. 

The  valley  of  east  Tennessee  is  perhaps  the  most  at- 
tractive part  of  the  state  to  visitors  and  travellers.  It 
extends  from  northeast  to  southwest  across  the  state,  and 
is  drained  by  the  Upper  Tennessee  and  its  branches.  It 
is  a  long,  narrow  valley,  somewhat  rough  and  irregular, 

175 


176  TYPE  STUDIES 

at  its  narrowest  point  not  more  than  seven  miles  across 
and  widening  out  to  twenty-five  miles.  This  valley  has 
the  range  of  the  Great  Smoky  Mountains,  or  Unaka  range, 
on  the  east,  separating  it  from  North  Carolina,  and  the 
lower  Cumberland  Mountains  on  the  west.  This  long  val- 
ley is  a  continuation  of  the  great  Valley  of  Virginia,  and 
was  the  home  of  the  first  settlers  under  Robertson  and 
Sevier.  It  is  somewhat  elevated  above  the  sea,  and  has  a 
cool  and  bracing  climate  even  in  summer  time.  During 
the  Civil  War  this  part  of  Tennessee  remained  faithful  to 
the  Union,  and  was  the  scene  of  many  battles  of  impor- 
tance. Near  Chattanooga  the  river  breaks  its  way 
through  the  mountains  and  turns  southwestward  into 
Alabama.  At  this  point  are  some  noble  bluffs  and  deep 
gorges,  through  which  the  river  passes,  and  this  was  the 
centre  of  Grant's  great  movements  at  one  period  of  the 
war.  Both  sides  of  this  valley  have  abundance  of  iron  ore, 
and  many  furnaces  have  been  established  for  its  reduction. 
Marble  is  also  quarried  along  the  valley,  and  has  been 
much  used  in  the  United  States  for  building  purposes:  as, 
for  example,  in  the  buildings  at  Washington.  This  great 
valley  has  been  waslied  out  during  long  ages  by  the 
waters  of  the  Tennessee  and  its  tributaries.  The  upper 
slopes  of  the  mountains  are  covered  with  pine  forests, 
which  yield  tar,  pitch,  and  lumber.  On  the  lower  moun- 
tain slopes  are  groves  of  sugar-maple  and  other  hard- 
wood trees,  and  red  cedar.  The  hills  and  mountain  slopes 
afford  abundant  pasturage,  but  there  is  only  a  narrow  strip 
of  rich  agricultural  land.  The  coal-fields  also  extend 
along  this  valley,  so  that  the  iron  ore  can  be  smelted  with 
coal  obtained  near  at  hand. 

Between  the  valley  of  east  Tennessee  and  the  valley  of 


S 


THE  SURFACE  OF  TENNESSEE 


177 


middle  Tennessee,  with  Nashville  as  its  centre,  are  the 
Cumberland  Mountains  and  their  projecting  highlands 
toward  the  west  and  south.  This  mountain  district  is 
not  so  high  as  the  Unaka  range,  and  while  most  of  the 
ridges  extend  from  north  to  south,  some  are  at  right 
angles   to   this.     ''The    Cumberland   Mountains   stretch 


Fig.  58. 
State  Capitol,  Nashville. 


across  the  state  from  north  to  south,  and  in  the  middle 
of  the  state  take  a  westerly  direction,  gradually  dimin- 
ishing into  moderately  hilly  ridges,  enclosing  beautiful 
and  fertile  valleys.  These  mountains  occupy  in  some 
places  a  breadth  of  fifty  miles,  and  are  a  prolongation 
of  the  Alleghany  range."  This  district  of  the  Cumber- 
land Mountains  is  really  a  plateau,    rising   in  places   to 


178  TYPE  STUDIES 

three  thousand  feet,  forty  miles  wide,  and  a  hundred  and 
forty  long.  It  is  underlaid  with  the  coal  measures,  and 
above  them  lie  the  later  rock  strata  that  were  formed 
above  the  coal-bearing  strata. 

In  the  north-central  part  of  the  state  lies  the  rich  and 
beautiful  valley  of  middle  Tennessee  through  which  tlie 


Fig.  59. 
Carnegie  Library,  Nashville. 

Cumberland  River  flows.  Most  of  the  country  between 
the  Cumberland  Mountains  and  the  Tennessee  River  of 
the  west  is  hilly  and  broken,  but  the  valley  about  Nash- 
ville sinks  below  the  level  of  the  surrounding  ridges,  and, 
in  fact,  is  like  a  great  basin  with  a  rim  of  rocky  highlands 
surrounding  it.  It  is  about  two  hundred  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  surrounding  hills  and  was  selected  by  the 
early  settlers  at  Nashville  for  its  fertility  and  rich  prom- 
ise. The  soil  of  middle  Tennessee,  as  it  is  called,  is 
generally  good,  producing  large  crops  of  wheat  and  other 


THE  SURFACE  OF  TENNESSEE  179 

grains,  hemp,  flax,  cotton,  and  tobacco.  In  this  region, 
also,  are  splendid  forests  which  have  been  more  developed 
in  rexjent  years  than  formerly.  The  poplar,  hickory,  black 
walnut,  oak,  beech,  locust,  and  cherry  are  found  in  abun- 
dance, both  on  the  lower  levels  and  on  the  uplands.  The 
lumber  industry  of  Tennessee  has  grown  to  much  impor- 
tance. 

Nashville,  Tennessee,  has  become  noted  as  a  beautiful 
southern  city.  It  has  a  number  of  great  schools  and 
higher  institutions  and  the  state  capitol,  as  well  as  a 
beautiful  location  on  the  river. 

The  district  between  the  Tennessee  and  Mississippi 
rivers  is  more  level  and  is  a  rich  agricultural  region. 
There  are  some  low  and  swampy  lands  in  the  northern 
part,  and  along  the  lowlands  of  both  the  Tennessee  and 
Mississippi  are  extensive  cane-brakes,  with  tall  canes  of 
great  size.  The  uplands  produce  cotton,  tobacco,  and  grain 
in  abundance.  In  the  lowlands  are  large  swamp  cypress, 
sycamore,  cottonwood,  and  swamp  cedar.  Memphis,  on 
a  bluff  in  the  southeast  of  the  state,  is  a  great  cotton 
market.  It  has  been  scourged  twice  with  3^ellow  fever, 
which  was  brought  up  the  river  in  boats  from  New  Orleans. 
Memphis  is  the  chief  river  port  between  St.  Louis  and 
New  Orleans.  Much  of  the  cotton  collected  here  is 
shipped  by  rail  to  New  York  and  other  eastern  cities.  A 
bridge  crosses  the  Mississippi  at  Memphis  and  connects 
with  railroads  to  Kansas  City  and  Little  Rock. 

The  state  of  Tennessee  is  naturally  a  very  rich  countr}^, 
with  great  forests  and  an  abundance  of  coal  and  iron  in 
its  hills  and  mountains.  It  has  also  a  rich  soil  and  large 
navigable  rivers  which  make  shipments  to  the  gulf  or  to  the 
Ohio  cheap.     But  since  the  war  the  resources  of  the  state 


180  TYPE  STUDIES 

have  not  been  rapidly  developed  until  the  last  few  years. 
Large  smelting,  steel,  and  iron  works  have  been  established 
at  Chattanooga  and  at  Knoxville.  Mills  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  cotton  cloth  have  been  established  also,  and  north- 
ern capital  and  settlers  are  helping  to  develop  the  riches  of 
the  country.  Large  companies  with  extensive  capital  have 
bought  up  some  of  the  best  forest  tracts  and  are  developing 
the  lumber  business.  Many  varieties  of  excellent  marble 
have  been  quarried  in  Tennessee  and  are  shipped  to  other 
states. 

One  of  the  curiosities  of  the  surface  of  Tennessee  is  the 
great  number  of  deep  and  extensive  caves  found  in  the  hilly 
limestone  districts  of  this  state.  Several  of  them  are  miles 
in  extent  underground,  with  streams  of  water  flowing 
through  them. 

Tennessee  is  as  much  broken  up  and  irregular  in  its 
surface  features  as  any  of  the  states  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  It  will  be  well  to  have  the  children  not  only 
draw  it  in  outline,  locating  the  districts  clearly,  but  also 
mould  it  in  sand  on  the  sand  table  and  work  out  in  detail 
its  physical  peculiarities,  studying  the  maps  for  this  pur- 
pose. 


TRIP   ON   THE   LOWER   MISSISSIPPI 

(From  St.  Louis  to  the  jetties  at  the  delta.) 

A  STEAMBOAT  trip  OR  the  Lower  Mississippi  from  St. 
Louis  down  to  the  mouth  was  formerly  much  more  common 
and  popular  than  now.  The  steamer  itself  is  a  grand  affair 
with  its  great  smoke-stacks  from  which  issue  clouds 
of  black.  A  writer  in  Scrihners  Monthly  for  October, 
1874,  thus  describes  a  Mississippi  steamer  :  "  The  Great 
Republic  is  the  largest  steamer  on  the  river,  literally  a 
floating  palace.  The  luxuriantly  furnished  cabin  is  as 
long  and  ample  as  a  promenade  hall,  and  has  accom- 
modations for  two  hundred  guests.  Standing  on  the  upper 
deck  or  in  the  pilot-house  one  fancies  the  graceful  structure 
to  be  at  rest,  even  when  going  at  full  speed.  This  is  the 
very  luxury  of  travel.  An  army  of  servants  come  and  go. 
As  in  an  ocean  voyage,  breakfast,  dinner,  and  tea  succeed 
each  other  so  quickly  that  one  regrets  the  rapid  flight  of 
the  hours.  In  the  evening  there  is  the  blaze  of  the 
chandeliers,  the  opened  piano,  a  colored  band  grouped 
about  it  and  playing  tasteful  music,  while  youths  and 
maidens  dance.  The  twoscore  negro  'roustabouts'  on  the 
boat  were  sources  of  infinite  amusement  to  the  passengers. 
At  the  small  landings  the  Great  Republic  would  lower  her 
gang-planks  and  down  the  steep  levees  would  come  a  pro- 
cession of  negroes  and  flour  barrels.  The  pilots  perched 
in  their  cosey  cage,  twisted  the  wheel,  and  told  us  strange 
stories." 

181 


182  TYPE  STUDIES 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  war  the  Lower  Mississippi  was 
the  scene  of  great  steamboat  travel  and  traffic.  The  in- 
vention of  the  steamboat  by  Fulton  was  a  great  help  to 
the  early  settlers  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys.  Be- 
fore 1817  there  were  8  steamboats  on  the  Ohio;  in 
1829  there  were  over  200  steamboats  on  the  Mississippi  ; 
in  1842  there  were  600  steamboats  and  4000  flatboats  ;  in 
1847  there  were  1190  steamboats,  besides  barges  and  flat- 
boats  on  western  rivers.  These  figures,  though  brief, 
show  how  trade  and  travel  grew  on  our  western  rivers  be- 
fore the  age  of  railroads.  Vast  quantities  of  goods  were 
shipped  on  the  rivers  east  and  west,  north  and  south.  In 
1842  it  is  estimated  that  $220,000,000  worth  of  goods  were 
carried  by  the  boats  on  western  rivers.  Immigrants  with 
their  families  and  household  goods  came  west  by  boat  and 
it  was  the  common  mode  of  travel  for  all.  There  was 
great  rivalry  of  the  companies  in  building  splendid  boats, 
and  races  up  and  down  the  river  were  common. 

A  trip  in  a  steamboat  nowadays  down  the  Mississippi  is 
not  so  exciting,  and  trade  and  steamboat  life  are  not  so 
brisk,  and  yet  such  a  trip  is  perhaps  the  best  means  of  get- 
ting some  knowledge  of  our  greatest  river  and  the  many 
curious  and  striking  pictures  it  furnishes. 

The  main  river  really  begins  where  the  Missouri  joins 
the  Mississippi,  and  together  they  pour  their  vast  flood 
down  the  broad  valley.  At  Cairo,  the  southern  point  of 
Illinois,  the  Ohio  adds  its  waters  to  the  main  stream,  and 
from  there  on  the  current  deepens,  the  valley  widens,  and 
the  tarlike  flood  winds  its  crooked  course  for  twelve 
hundred  miles  through  the  soft  mud  and  bottom-lands, 
where  no  sign  of  rock  is  found  in  bank  or  bottom,  but 
only  the  rich  silt  carried  dow^n  by  the  river. 


TBIP   ON   THE  LOWER  MISSISSIPPI 


183 


The  distance  between  the  bluffs  is  from  twenty-five  to 
eighty  or  even  a  hundred  miles.  From  Cairo  to  Memphis 
the  river  hugs  the  Kentucky  shore,  leaving  the  earthquake 
swamp  and  sunken 
lands  on  the  west  side 
in  Missouri  and  Arkan- 
sas. Below  Memphis 
the  channel  crosses  the 
lowlands  to  the  other 
side  and  flows  past  the 
bluffs  at  Helena  and  the 
mouths  of  the  White 
and  Arkansas  rivers. 
Then  farther  south  the 
current  of  the  river 
sweeps  across  the  low- 
lands to  the  bluffs  at 
Vicksburg,  and  does 
not  return  to  the  west 
bluffs.  There  are  vast 
swamps  and  rich  bot- 
tom-lands on  the  east 
side  between  Memphis 
and  Vicksburg.  Below 
Vicksburg  there  are 
extensive  lowlands, 
bayous,  and  swamps  on 
the  west  side.  In  the  bottoms  the  land  slopes  down  grad- 
ually away  from  the  immediate  banks  of  the  river,  so  that 
most  of  the  bottom-lands  are  below  the  level  of  high 
water,  and  are  subject  to  floods  unless  the  levees  can  be 
made  strong  and  high  enough  to  protect  them. 


GULF         OF 

Longitude  West  from  Greenwich 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


Fig.  60. 
The  Lower  Mississippi  River. 


184  TYPE  STUDIES 

Starting  from  St.  Louis  down  the  river  in  March,  we 
have  more  than  a  week's  quiet  journey  to  New  Orleans. 
It  may  be  cold  and  wintry  in  the  north,  but  there  are 
great  changes  of  climate  before  we  reach  the  end.  It 
grows  warmer ;  we  find  the  fields  already  ploughed  and 
planted  in  Mississippi,  and  the  trees  are  green.  The 
swamp  oaks  festooned  with  gray  moss  give  the  lowlands  a 
dismal  look,  and  at  this  season  the  bottom-lands  may  be 
flooded.  In  places  along  the  shore  of  Tennessee  we  see 
tall  cane-brakes,  and  on  the  bluffs  sometimes  two  and 
three  hundred  feet  above  the  valley  are  perched  the  cities. 

"A  journey  of  twelve  hundred  mil^s  was  before  us. 
We  were  sailing  from  the  treacherous  March  weather  of 
St.  Louis  to  meet  the  loveliest  summer  robed  in  green  and 
garlanded  with  fairest  blossoms.  Eight  days  of  this  rest- 
ful sailing  on  the  gently  throbbing  current  and  we  should 
see  the  lowlands,  the  Cherokee  rose,  the  jessamine,  the 
orange  tree. 

"  Our  river  pilot  must  be  a  man  of  great  nerve  and  ex- 
perience, not  only  knowing  the  channel  and  all  its  twist- 
ing courses,  but  able  to  detect  changes  in  the  shallows  and 
currents,  and  skilful  to  guide  the  vessel  even  .at  night. 
Mark  Twain,  in  his  '  Life  on  the  Lower  Mississippi,'  has 
given  us  a  vivid  picture  of  the  pilot  and  of  steamboat  life 
at  the  time  of  its  greatest  importance. 

"  The  pilots  on  the  Mississippi  and  western  rivers  have 
an  association  with  headquarters  at  St.  Louis  and  branches 
at  Pittsburg  and  other  cities.  Each  of  the  seventy-four 
pilots  on  his  trip  makes  a  report  of  the  changes  or  obstruc- 
tions in  the  channel,  which  is  forwarded  from  point  to 
point  to  all  the  others. 

"  In  March  and  April,  when  the  snows  and  ice  are  melt- 


TRIP   ON  THE  LOWER  MISSISSIPPI  185 

ing  and  the  spring  floods  come  down  from  all  the  great 
tributaries  of  the  Mississippi,  the  main  channel  below  Cairo 
becomes  a  mighty  torrent.  It  rises  little  by  little  till  the 
levees  can  scarcely  hold  it  back.  These  floods  are  not 
frequent,  but  in  some  cases  they -have  been  very  destruc- 
tive, and  neither  the  owners  of  plantations  in  the  great 
bottom-lands  nor  the  government  of  the  United  States 
have  been  able  yet  to  control  the  river  at  such  times  of 
danger. 

"When  the  rains  have  swollen  its  tributary  rivers  to 
more  than  their  ordinary  volume,  the  Mississippi  River  is 
grand,  terrible,  treacherous.  Always  subtle  and  serpentlike 
in  its  mode  of  stealing  upon  its  prey,  it  swallows  up  acres 
at  one  fell  swoop  on  one  side,  sweeping  them  away  from 
their  frail  hold  on  the  mainland,  while,  on  the  other,  it 
covers  plantations  with  slime  and  broken  tree  trunks  and 
boughs,  forcing  the  frightened  inhabitants  into  the  second 
story  of  their  cabins  and  driving  the  cattle  and  swine 
upon  high  knolls  to  starve  or  to  drown.  It  pierces  the 
puny  levees  which  have  cost  the  bordering  states  such  vast 
sums,  and  goes  bubbling  and  roaring  through  the  crevasse, 
distracting  the  planters  and  sending  dismay  to  millions  of 
people  in  a  single  night.  It  promises  a  fall  on  one  day  and 
rises  suddenly  the  next.  It  makes  a  lake  of  fertile  coun- 
try and  carries  off  hundreds  of  woodpiles  which  patient 
labor  has  collected  along  the  banks  for  the  use  of  passing 
steamers.  It  makes  islands  of  towns  perched  on  the 
banks.  As  the  huge  steamer  glides  along  on  the  mighty 
current  we  can  see  families  perched  in  the  second  stories 
of  their  houses.  At  one  point  a  man  was  sculling  along 
from  house  to  barn  with  food  for  his  stock.  The  log  barn 
was  a  dreary  pile  in  the  midst  of  the  flood.     The  swine 


186  TYPE  STUDIES 

and  cows  stood  shivering  on  a  pine  knoll.  As  we  passed 
below  the  Arkansas  and  White  rivers,  the  gigantic  volume 
of  water  had  so  far  overrun  its  natural  boundaries  that  we 
seemed  at  sea  instead  of  upon  an  inland  river.  The  Cot- 
tonwood trees  and  cypresses  stood  up  amid  the  watery 
wilderness  like  ghosts.  Gazing  into  the  long  avenues  of 
the  sombre  forests,  we  could  see  only  the  same  level, 
all-enveloping  flood.  In  the  open  country  the  cabins 
seemed  ready  to  sail  away,  though  their  masters  were 
usually  smoking  with  much  equanimity  and  awaiting  a 
'fall.'" 

The  levees  built  along  the  bank  to  keep  the  water  in 
the  main  channel  and  prevent  overflow  begin  above  Cairo. 
This  city  is  built  on  a  flat,  low  plain,  below  the  level  of 
high  water.  The  levees  are  strong  at  this  point,  so  that 
the  water  does  not  flood  the  town,  but  it  seeps  through 
the  banks  and  covers  the  lower  ground,  making  it  possible 
to  pass  through  som^  of  the  streets  in  boats.  The  levees 
are  designed  not  only  to  prevent  the  floods  sweeping  into 
the  lowlands,  but  by  confining  the  current  they  are  expected 
to  cause  the  w^aters  to  scour  out  a  deeper  channel.  Before 
the  war,  when  the  planters  were  richer  and  could  control 
their  laborers  to  better  advantage,  the  levees  were  better 
kept  up  and  the  lowlands  protected ;  but  since  the  war 
there  have  been  several  destructive  floods,  doing  millions 
of  dollars'  worth  of  damage.  There  is  a  levee  extending 
most  of  the  distance  from  Cairo  to  Vicksburg  on  the  east 
side.  The  national  government  has  spent  a  good  deal  of 
money  in  surveying  the  river  and  in  building  and  protect- 
ing the  levees.  One  chief  difficulty  is  the  fact  that  the 
levees  themselves  have  to  be  built  of  the  soft  mud  and 
dirt,  which  the  current  of  the  river  so  easily  washes  away. 


i 


TRIP   ON  THE  LOWER   MISSISSIPPI  187 

and  the  river  is  constantly  eating  into  its  banks  and 
washing  away  at  times  whole  acres  of  land. 

Several  of  the  most  important  cities  we  pass  upon  the 
steamer  are  situated  high  on  the  bluffs  at  the  foot  of  which 
the  river  flows.  The  first  of  these  is  Memphis,  on  the 
fourth  Chickasaw  bluff,  and  not  only  holding  a  command- 
ing position  on  the  bluff,  but  a  great  centre  of  the  Missis- 
sippi trade  in  cotton  and  tobacco.  It  is  also  an  important 
railroad  centre,  because  of  its  railroad  connections  with 
the  west  and  southwest,  and  with  the  east. 

Vicksburg,  another  "hill  city,"  is  on  a  great  bend  in 
the  river.  The  steep  streets  run  up  to  the  terraces  and 
bluffs  and  the  city  presents  an  imposing  sight  from  the 
river.  The  bluffs  run  back  to  a  higher  plateau  back  of 
the  city,  and  many  fine  residences  are  seen  on  the  higher 
terraces.  The  old  court-house  occupies  one  of  the  highest 
levels,  and  the  old  fort,  with  its  grass-covered  ramparts, 
still  stands  on  an  eminence  commanding  the  river,  and 
bears  marks  of  the  memorable  siege.  From  this  old  fort, 
high  upon  the  bluffs,  one  can  see  the  great  bend  in  the 
river,  the  passing  steamers  and  ferries,  and  the  lowlands 
of  the  great  loop,  almost  covered  in  high  water.  During 
the  siege  of  Vicksburg,  General  Grant  tried  to  turn  the 
channel  of  the  river  at  the  time  of  the  spring  flood.  In 
this  he  failed,  but  in  later  years  the  river  itself  made  a 
cut-off,  leaving  the  city  of  Vicksburg  several  miles  away 
from  the  main  channel.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo  River 
is  the  great  national  cemetery  where  sixteen  thousand 
soldiers  lie  buried,  and  twelve  thousand  of  the  graves  are 
marked  "unknown."  Trees  are  planted,  and  the  grounds 
are  kept  tastefully  in  honor  of  the  soldiers  who  fell  in 
the  south.     Oak  trees  have  been  planted  and  have  grown 


188  TYPE  STUDIES 

upon  the  spot,  and  vines  have  clambered  upon  them.  A 
small  marble  monument  marks  the  spot  where  Grant  met 
Pemberton.  Vicksburg  was  formerly  the  centre  of  a 
great  steamboat  trade  with  New  Orleans,  and  is  still 
important  for  the  cotton  trade. 

Natchez  also  stands  on  high  bluffs  overlooking  the 
river.  It  is  one  of  the  loveliest  of  Mississippi  towns 
and  was  once  the  home  of  great  wealth  and  of  many 
cultured  families.  That  part  of  the  town  at  the  foot 
of  the  bluffs  along  the  water  is  known  as  "Natchez 
under  the  Hill, "  where  the  steamboats  load  cotton. 
The  steep  road  leading  up  the  high  bluff  brings  us  to 
a  beautifully  shaded,  quiet  town,  with  rich  and  cultured 
homes.  Before  the  war  this  was  a  favorite  residence  of 
many  important  families,  and  now  these  old  homes  may 
be  seen  in  the  midst  of  abundant  trees  and  blossoms. 
"In  the  suburbs,  before  the  war,  were  great  numbers 
of  planters'  residences — beautiful  homes  with  colonnades 
and  verandas,  with  rich  drawing  and  dining  rooms, 
furnished  in  heavy  antique  style,  and  gardens  modelled 
after  the  finest  in  Europe.  Many  of  these  have  been 
destroyed,  but  we  visited  some  still  preserved.  The 
lawns  and  gardens  are  luxurious,  the  wealth  of  roses 
inconceivable.  I  remember  no  palace  garden  in  Europe 
which  impressed  me  so  powerfully  with  the  sense  of 
richness  and  profusion  of  costly  and  delicate  blooms  as 
Brown's  garden  at  Natchez.  It  was  also  on  the  bluffs 
at  Natchez  that  the  Indians  in  olden  time  kept  the  sa- 
cred fire  ever  burning,  but  which  went  out  when  the 
white  men  came." 

Two  other  great  rivers  besides  the  Missouri  come 
into  the  Mississippi  from  the  west,  the  Arkansas  above 


TRIP   ON   THE  LOWEB   MISSISSIPPI 


189 


Natchez  and  Vicksburg  and  the  Red  River  below. 
The  Ar.kansas  comes  all  the  way  across  the  plains  two 
thousand  miles  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  Colorado. 
It  is  a  fine  river  and  is  navigable  to  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory. The  Red  River  is  also  important  for  steamboat 
traffic.  Formerly  a  great  raft  of  driftwood,  thirty 
miles  long,  obstructed  the  boating  above  Shreveport. 
But  government  engineers  succeeded  in  breaking   it  up 


Fig.  61. 

Loading  and  unloading  goods  on  the  levee  at  New  Orleans.    Notice  the  mules, 
one  of  the  most  common  draft  animals  of  the  South. 


and  in  opening  a  passage  for  boats.  At  the  time  of 
spring  floods  these  rivers  also  add  their  volume  to  the 
Mississippi  and  increase  the  danger  of  overflow. 

New  Orleans,  the  chief  city  of  the  Lower  Mississippi, 
is  built  on  a  great  bend  in  the  river  on  lowlands  slop- 
ing back  from  the  high  levees.  The  levee  at  New  Or- 
leans is  crowded  with  steamboats  loading  cotton  bales 
and  barrels  of  sugar  and  unloading  the  cargoes  from 
Europe  and  from  the  Atlantic  coast.     Fruits  and  tropi- 


190  TYPE  STUDIES 

cal  products  are  landed  from  the  West  Indies  and 
South  America.  New  Orleans  was  originally  settled  by 
the  French  and  many  French  names  and  families  are 
still  met  with.  The  great  French  market  with  its  sheds 
and  booths,  fruits,  flowers,  and  fish,  is  one  of  the  pecul- 
iar attractions  of  this  metropolis  of  the  south.  The 
cemeter}^  is  a  beautiful  park  in  which  palm  trees,  ba- 
nanas, magnolias,  and  other  fine  southern  trees  abound. 
The  graves  are  marble  vaults  built  above  the  surface, 
as  the  ground  is  so  low  and  saturated  with  moisture 
that  graves  are  not  dug.  At  New  Orleans  was  fought 
the  famous  battle  at  the  close  of  the  War  of  1812  in 
which  Andrew  Jackson  defeated  the  British. 

The  commerce  of  New  Orleans  and  of  the  Lower  Missis- 
sippi was  hindered  for  many  years  by  the  bars  of  mud 
formed  at  the  mouths  of  the  river.  An  examination  of  a 
good  map  of  the  river  below  New  Orleans  will  show  clearly 
that  the  water  of  the  Mississippi  has  carried  down  a  great 
deal  of  mud  and  built  up  new  land  far  out  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  In  forcing  its  way  through  the  mud  that  has 
collected  at  its  mouth  the  main  current  breaks  up  into 
three  channels  called  the  Southwest  Pass,  South  Pass,  and 
Pass  a  rOutre.  The  flat,  marshy  land  and  water  about 
these  three  mouths  are  known  as  the  delta.  "  The  river 
at  the  head  of  the  passes  finds  its  way  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  through  these  different  channels.  The  Southwest 
Pass,  the  broadest  and  deepest  of  them  all,  trends  to  the 
right  and  Pass  a  I'Outre,  the  next  in  size,  to  the  east, 
while  between  th^se  two  and  more  directly  in  the  course 
of  the  river  is  the  South  Pass.  The  river  just  above  its 
subdivision  is  a  mile  and  three-quarters  wide,  forty  feet 
deep,  and  carries  every  minute,  when  at  flood,  72,000,000 


TRIP  ON   THE  LOWER  MISSISSIPPI 


191 


F^ 


■^  BATTLEDORE  I. 
»iB  HOG  ISLANDS 
LITTLE  BIRD  i'        B       B       U       T        0       JT 

S     O     U     N    D 


]\nSSlSSIPPI  KIYER 

FROM  TrtE  PASSES  TO  GRAND  PRAIRIE 


SCALE  OP  MILES 


Fig.  62. 
Delta  of  the  Mississippi. 


cubic  feet  of  water  to  the  Gulf.  Every  cubic  foot  of  this 
vast  volume  of  water  contains  nearly  two  cubic  inches  of 
sand  and  mud.       Enough  earth  matter,  it  is  estimated,  is 


192  TYPE  STUDIES 

annually  thrown  into  the  Gulf  to  build  a  prism  one  mile 
square  and  268  feet  thick.  At  the  mouth  of  each  pass  is 
a  bar,  oyer  which  there  is  more  or  less  depth  of  water." 
It  is  not  a  narrow  ridge  of  mud,  but  a  broad,  flat  bar  of 
sand  and  mud  four  or  five  miles  across.  "  At  Southwest 
Pass  the  depth  of  water  on  the  bar  is  about  thirteen  feet, 
at  Pass  a  TOutre  it  is  ten  feet,  at  South  Pass,  before  the 
construction  of  the  jetties,  it  was  eight  feet.  The  crests 
of  these  bars  are  not  immediately  at  the  end  of  the  land, 
but  from  two  and  a  half  to  five  miles  out  in  the  gulf. 
Through  the  whole  length  of  the  passes  there  is  a  deep 
channel  (uniform  for  each  pass)  about  1200  to  1500  feet 
wide  in  the  two  large  passes  and  600  feet  wide  in  South 
Pass,  and  the  depths  are  about  50  feet  in  the  large  passes 
and  35  feet  in  the  South  Pass." 

As  the  water  goes  down  through  the  passes  it  has  a  swift, 
boiling  current  and  scours  out  a  deep  channel  and  carries 
its  mud  and  sand  with  it.  But  when  the  rushing  current 
reaches  the  broad,  shallow  expanse  of  water  at  the  mouth, 
it  spreads  out  and  becomes  sluggish  so  that  the  silt  settles 
to  the  bottom.  In  this  way  these  broad,  flat  bars  are  formed 
and  kept  constantly  extending  into  the  gulf.  In  the  South 
Pass  100  feet  per  annum,  in  Southwest  Pass  over  300  feet 
per  annum,  were  built  up.  These  shallowbars  at  the  mouths 
of  the  river  were  a  great  obstruction  to  ships  going  in 
and  out.  Dredging  boats  were  used  constantly  to  deepen 
the  passage  at  Southwest  Pass,  at  an  expense  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  $250,000  a  year,  but  even  then  they  could  not 
secure  a  depth  of  more  than  eighteen  feet  and  often  less. 
All  large  vessels,  therefore,  were  hindered  from  passing 
the  bars. 

"  In  1859  a  committee  from  the  New  Orleans  Chambei 


TRIP   ON   THE  LOWER   MISSISSIPPI  193 

of  Commerce  visited  the  Southwest  Pass,  and  found  the 
bar  blocked  with  a  vessel  while  fifty-five  other  vessels 
were  waiting  to  come  in  or  go  out.  Some  of  these  vessels 
had  been  there  for  weeks  waiting  for  a  chance  to  go  to 
sea."  Vessels  of  more  than  700  tons  burden  could  not 
pass  the  bars,  but  the  average  vessels  of  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board carried  from  1200  to  1800  tons. 

It  was  extremely  important  therefore  to  the  commerce  of 
New  Orleans  and  the  south  to  find  some  means  of  secur- 
ing a  deep  channel  to  the  gulf. 

In  1874  Captain  James  B.  Eads  appeared  before  Con- 
gress at  Washington  with  a  plan  for  building  jetties  and 
deepening  the  current  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  He  did 
not  have  the  means  for  carrying  on  such  an  expensive 
undertaking,  but  he  agreed,  if  Congress  would  furnish 
the  money,  to  secure  a  channel  thirty  feet  ^eep,  and  to 
receive  no  pay  for  his  own  labors  till  this  result  was 
accomplished.  Many  of  the  ablest  engineers  were  directly 
opposed  to  Captain  Eads's  plan,  but  he  explained  his  ideas 
so  forcibly  tliat  Congress,  in  March,  1875,  passed  a  bill 
authorizing  him  to  make  the  attempt.  Captain  Eads 
desired  much  to  make  use  of  the  Southwest  Pass  because 
of  its  greater  depth  and  current,  but  he  was  compelled  by 
Congress  to  make  the  attempt  in  South  Pass. 

His  general  plan  was  based  on  the  idea  of  letting  the 
river  scour  out  its  own  channel,  and  even  cut  a  deep  pas- 
sage through  the  bar  beyond  the  mouth  of  the  pass. 
Beginning  at  the  upper  end  of  South  Pass,  he  began  to 
build  a  line  of  jetties  on  each  side  of  the  channel,  forming 
thus  new  banks,  narrowing  the  current  of  water,  compelling 
it  to  flow  faster  and  scour  deeper  the  channel  of  the  pass. 
First  a  row  of  piles  was  driven  down  along  each  side  of 


194  TYPE  STUDIES 

the  pass,  but  in  the  water  at  some  distance  from  the  shore. 
In  some  places  the  piles  were  driven  in  water  thirty  feet 
deep.  It  was  found  that  these  piles  formed  a  firm  and 
substantial  barrier  against  which  to  build  up  the  jetties. 
The  piles  were  driven  into  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  the 
channel  by  means  of  steam  pile-drivers.  This  double  row 
of  piles  extended  in  a  curve  along  the  sides  of  the  channel 
of  the  South  Pass  and  across  the  bar  two  and  a  half  miles 
beyond  to  the  open  waters  of  the  gulf. 

The  jetties  themselves,  which  were  built  along  these 
lines,  consisted  of  great  willow  mattresses,  from  twenty- 
five  to  forty  feet  in  width  and  a  hundred  feet  long.  "  The 
jetties  are  constructed  principally  of  willows.  These 
trees  grow  in  great  abundance  about  twenty-five  miles  up 
the  river,  and  vary  in  size  from  one  to  two  and  a  half  inches 
at  the  butt,  and  from  fifteen  to  thirty  feet  in  length." 

The  willow  mattresses  were  constructed  by  Captain 
Eads  on  the  following  plan  :  "  Along  the  bank  of  the  pass 
were  built  inclined  ways  at  right  angles  to  the  shore  line 
and  extending  back  from  the  river  bank  about  fifty  feet. 
The  inclines  are  so  constructed  that  while  the  ends  of  the 
timbers  are  under  water  at  the  river  they  are  about  six 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  water  at  the  other  or  shore  end. 
These  timbers  are  spaced  about  six  feet  apart,  and  are 
parallel  with  each  other.  Boards  below  hold  these  tim- 
bers firmly  in  place.  The  ways  are  now  ready  for  the 
mattresses,  which  are  built  in  the  following  manner: 
Long  strips  of  board,  two  and  a  half  inches  thick  and  six 
inches  wide  and  from  twenty-five  to  forty  feet  long,  ^re 
laid  across  the  slanting  timbers,  and  spliced  together  until 
about  a  hundred  feet  high.  If  the  mattress  is  to  be  forty 
feet  wide,  nine  strips  are  used  and  five  feet  apart.     Holes 


TRIP   ON   THE  LOWER  MISSISSIPPI  195 

are  bored  in  these  strips  one  and  one-eighth  inches  in 
diameter  and  five  feet  apart.  Hickory  pins  whose  ends 
have  been  turned  to  fit  the  holes  tightly  are  driven  into 
these,  and  wedged  and  nailed  tightly.  The  pins  stick  up 
about  thirty  inches  high.  Some  of  the  workmen  now 
climb  upon  the  willow  barge  and  pass  the  willows  down 
to  the  other  workmen  standing  on  the  frame,  who  place 
the  willows  in  a  layer  about  six  inches  deep  across  the 
strips  of  the  frame.  Then  a  second  layer  of  willows  is 
placed  at  right  angles  to  the  first,  and  so  on  till  the  wil- 
lows stand  above  the  tops  of  the  pins. 

*'  In  placing  the  willows  the  bushy  tops  project  three  or 
four  feet  beyond  the  frame.  The  men  then  bore  holes 
in  other  strips  about  forty  feet  long,  place  them  across 
the  mattress,  and  insert  the  pins  into  the  holes,  pressing 
down  the  cross  strips  with  levers.  Wedges  and  pins  are 
driven  into  the  ends  of  the  pins,  and  the  mattress  is  done 
and  ready  for  launching.  The  mattress  is  easily  pulled 
off  the  ways  by  means  of  a  steam  tug,  which  tows  it  to  its 
place  along  the  jetty  piling.  A  barge  loaded  with  rock 
is  then  placed  alongside  the  floating  mattress,  and  the 
stone  distributed  evenly  over  it  until  it  sinks  to  the  bot- 
tom. The  foundation  mattress  is  usually  from  forty  to 
fifty  feet  wide,  according  to  the  depth  of  the  water.  The 
courses  above  it  become  narrower  and  narrower  until  they 
reach  the  surface  of  the  water,  where  the  average  width  is 
twenty-five  feet.  When  the  mattresses  are  sunk  into  the 
river  all  the  interstices  fill  very  quickly  with  sediment, 
which  serves  not  only  to  hold  it  more  securely  in  place, 
but  makes  it  much  more  impervious  to  water."  A  row 
of  these  mattress  jetties  was  thus  built  on  each  side  of 
the  channel  of  South  Pass,  narrowing  it  to  about  1000  feet. 


196  TYPE  STUDIES 

"  When  the  jetties  were  nearly  constructed,  it  was 
decided  to  build  temporary  spurs  or  wing  dams  at  right 
angles  to  the  jetties,  extending  into  the  channel  about  150 
feet.  These  wing  dams  narrowed  the  channel  from  1000 
to  about  700  feet.  The  objects  in  constructing  these  wing 
dams  were  :  first,  to  locate  the  deep-water  channel  midway 
between  the  jetties  ;  second,  to  hasten  the  channel  develop- 
ment ;  third,  to  induce  a  deposit  of  sediment  and  an  in- 
cipient bank  formation  along  the  channel  side  of  the 
jetties.  These  wing  dams  were  spaced  about  600  feet  apart. 
They  were  built  by  driving  a  row  of  piles  out  from  the 
jetty  line  and  resting  the  mattress  against  them,  placing  it 
on  edge." 

One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  was  to  produce  a  deep 
channel  through  a  large  shoal  at  the  head  of  South  Pass. 
In  order  to  produce  a  current  into  South  Pass  strong 
enough  to  scour  out  a  channel  through  this  shoal,  dikes 
and  dams  were  run  up  from  the  head  of  South  Pass  to 
raise  the  water  and  secure  a  more  rapid  fall.  At  first  the 
result  was  to  turn  the  water  into  the  other  passes,  but 
great  wing  dams  of  mattresses  were  built  across  the  chan- 
nels of  both  larger  passes  which  had  the  effect  of  raising 
the  water  in  all  the  passes  and  in  giving  such  a  rapid  flow 
through  the  shoal  as  to  scour  out  a  channel  40  feet  deep. 

From  the  very  beginning  of  the  jetty  building,  the  effect 
could  be  seen  in  South  Pass  by  a  deepening  of  the  channel. 
As  the  jetties  progressed  toward  the  bar,  the  channel  across 
the  bar  gradually  deepened  from  month  to  month.  From 
May,  1875,  to  July,  1879,  the  work  went  steadily  forward. 
At  the  end  of  this  time  there  was  a  channel  30  feet  deep 
from  the  deep  water  in  the  river  to  the  deep  water  in 
the  gulf.    It  was  700  feet  wide  at  the  surface  and  200  feet 


TBIP   ON   THE  LOWER   MISSISSIPPI  197 

wide  at  the  bottom.  To  form  this  channel  through  the 
bar  required  the  removal  of  5,500,000  cubic  yards  of 
material  which  has  been  washed  out  by  the  current  into 
the  gulf.  Captain  Eads  also  constructed  a  very  large 
dredge-boat  which  was  used  to  help  deepen  the  channel  in 
a  few  of  the  shallow^  places. 

"  At  the  outer  end  of  the  jetties,  where  they  projected 
beyond  the  bar  into  the  gulf,  there  was  danger  that  the 
violent  storms  which  beat  against  these  shores  at  some 
seasons  would  destroy  the  works.  To  prevent  this,  a  heavy 
line  of  stone  and  concrete  was  built  out  along  the  jetties. 

''  At  distances  of  every  50  feet  near  the  outer  end  of 
the  work  are  built  spur  cribs,  about  20  feet  square,  filled 
with  rock,  upon  which  a  solid  concrete  block  is  built. 
Flanking  the  work  at  the  extreme  sea  end  are  massive 
cribs  of  palmetto  logs,  filled  with  riprap  and  surmounted 
with  larger  rock." 

The  success  of  this  great  enterprise  brought  good  not 
only  to  New  Orleans  but  to  the  whole  Mississippi  Valley. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  jetties,  by  partially  improving  the 
channel  of  the  river,  saved  the  country  $1,600,000  during 
the  year  ending  September  1,  1878,  by  the  reduction  in 
freights  on  cotton  alone. 

Before  leaving  the  study  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the 
whole  river  with  its  tributaries  should  be  sketched,  the 
different  producing  regions  located,  the  chief  marts  pointed 
out  and  compared,  the  contrasts  of  climate  and  production 
noted,  and  the  different  kinds  of  populations  and  of  occu- 
pations clearly  perceived.  This  extensive  valley,  with  its 
network  of  rivers  and  variety  of  producing  regions,  is  a 
great,  complex  type  of  a  river  valley  with  which  to  com- 
pare other  great  river  valleys  of  the  world. 


COTTON  AND  COTTON  PLANTATIONS 

Cotton  was  a  native  plant  used  by  the  Indians  for 
making  cloth  in  Mexico  when  Columbus  first  came.  The 
sea-island  cotton  came  from  Honduras,  and  the  cotton 
plant  of  the  Southern  States  probably  from  Mexico. 

The  cotton  crop  of  the  United  States  is  raised  in  the 
Southern  States,  Texas,  Mississippi,  and  Georgia  leading 
in  its  production.  It  is  grown  best  in  a  warm  and  moder- 
ately moist  climate.  The  summer  season  must  be  long 
and  not  subject  to  chilly  temperatures.  The  great  bulk 
of  the  cotton  produced  is  of  the  white  varieties  which  will 
grow  anywhere  throughout  the  southern  sections  of  the 
United  States  ;  but  the  sea-island  cotton  thrives  best  only 
in  the  extreme  southern  belt,  mainly  on  the  islands  and 
low  coast  lands  of  Georgia,  the  northern  part  of  Florida, 
and  the  coast  of  South  Carolina.  It  will  grow  higher  up 
in  the  belt,  but  it  does  not  mature  well. 

In  many  of  the  Southern  States,  cotton  is  the  one  great 
and  important  crop.  The  large  plantations  are  most  exclu- 
sively devoted  to  cotton  raising.  When  a  good  crop  is 
sold  at  fair  prices  it  enables  the  planter  to  purchase  all  the 
necessaries  and  comforts  of  life,  but  if  the  crop  fails  the 
planter  is  brought  almost  to  ruin.  The  growth  of  cotton 
raising  in  the  South  is  remarkable. 

A  good  description  of  a  large  cotton  plantation  in  the 
South  before  the  war  would  give  us  one  of  the  most  in- 

198 


COTTON  AND   COTTON  PLANTATIONS  199 

teresting  and  characteristic  pictures  of  southern  life.  The 
residence  of  the  planter  with  its  broad  verandas  stood  in 
the  midst  of  his  extensive  fields.  The  barns  and  gin- 
houses  and  the  log  huts  or  cottages  of  the  negro  laborers 
were  near  at  hand.  Hundreds  of  cotton  pickers,  men  and 
women,  under  the  control  of  overseers  went  into  the  fields, 
and  often  their  plantation  melodies  were  heard  as  they 
worked.  But  now  the  large  plantation  is  frequently  divided 
up  into  small  farms  and  leased  to  small  farmers.  Each 
little  farm  has  a  cabin  and  stable  where  the  man  and 
his  family  live.  They  cultivate  their  farm  for  a  money 
rental  or  in  some  cases  for  a  share  of  the  product.  The 
owner  of  the  plantation  has  a  store  on  his  estate  where  he 
keeps  an  account  with  each  of  his  tenants,  selling  him  tools 
and  farm  implements,  feed  for  his  team,  seed  for  the 
planting,  and  other  things.  Sometimes  a  planter  hires  a 
number  of  hands  to  put  in  his  crop  and  cultivate  it  as  on 
northern  farms. 

Constant  care  is  exercised  to  get  the  best  seeds.  These  are 
obtained  by  watching  closely  the  growing  plants,  the  yield 
of  cotton,  and  the  quality  of  the  fibre.  Seeds  are  selected 
(1)  as  to  f ruitfulness  of  the  plant ;  (2)  as  to  the  size  of 
the  bolls;  (3)  as  to  length  of  staple ;  (4)  as  to  yield  of  lint 
cotton  from  a  given  quantity  of  seed  cotton,  and  (5)  as  to 
shape  of  plant,  i.e,  whether  it  grows  with  long  branches, 
thus  requiring  much  room,  or  whether  it  has  short  branches 
or  none  at  all.  When  the  cotton  is  ginned  in  the  fall  the 
seed  for  planting  is  selected  and  set  aside  for  the  next 
crop. 

In  early  spring  the  farmer  begins  to  prepare  the  soil  for 
the  cotton  crop.  It  is  said  jokingl}^  sometimes  that  it  takes 
"  thirteen  "  months  of  the  year  to  make  a  cotton  crop.     It 


200  TYPE  STUDIES 

does  take  about  all  the  year  in  one  way  or  another  to  suc- 
ceed with  a  cotton  crop.  The  first  work  in  preparing  the 
soil  is  to  break  the  land  thoroughly  by  deep  ploughing. 
Soon  after  this  the  "  beds  "  for  cotton  rows  are  made.  To 
do  this  furrows  are  run  with  ploughs.  In  rich  lands  these 
furrows  for  the  rows  should  be  from  four  to  five  feet  apart 
and  in  moderate  lands  from  three  to  four  feet  apart.  In 
these  furrows  is  placed  whatever  manure  or  fertilizer  is  to 
be  used  on  the  crop.  (In  thin  lands  this  fertilizer,  under 
favorable  conditions,  increases  the  yield  of  cotton,  and  even 
in  very  rich  lands  it  aids,  as  the  fertilizer  brings  the  plant 
to  maturity  earlier  and  it  thus  escapes  the  frost.) 

To  make  the  "  beds,"  a  furrow  is  first  run  on  each  side 
of  the  furrow  containing  the  fertilizer  and  afterwards  in 
the  same  way  the  land  between  the  rows  is  thrown  toward 
the  original  furrows,  until  there  is  only  one  furrow,  which 
is  called  the  middle  furrow.  When  the  land  is  all  ploughed 
in  this  way,  it  is  said  to  be  "  bedded  "  and  it  consists  of  a 
series  of  long,  flat  surfaces  divided  by  furrows  which  are 
the  width  of  the  rows  apart.  The  land  then  stands  in  this 
condition  until  it  is  thought  that  the  weather  is  warm 
enough  to  plant  the  seed. 

In  the  old  way  of  planting,  a  man  with  a  horse  and 
plough  opened  the  bed  by  running  a  small  furrow  on  top  of 
it  just  over  the  furrow  in  which  the  fertilizer  was  placed, 
and  another  man  sowed  in  this  furrow  the  cotton  seed  which 
he  carried  in  a  bag  or  basket ;  behind  him  went  a  man 
with  a  horse  and  plough  or  harrow  with  which  he  covered 
the  seed. 

This  planting  is  now  done  by  the  use  of  a  cotton  planter 
which  is  a  modified  plough.  It  has  (1)  a  small  plough 
which  opens  the  bed,  (2)  a  box  containing  the  seeds  which 


COTTON  AND   COTTON  PLANTATIONS  201 

are  distributed  in  the  furrow  by  means  of  a  wheel  which 
runs  on  the  ground,  and  (3)  a  double  plough  or  two  small 
ploughs  that  cover  the  seed.  In  this  way  one  hand,  a 
horse,  and  plough  can  do  as  much  work  as  three  hands, 
two  horses,  and  two  ploughs  did  in  the  "old  way." 

When  the  ground  is  warm  and  moist  enough  the  seeds 
will  germinate  in  about  ten  days.  Usually  there  are  more 
plants  than  are  needed.  In  about  ten  days  after  the  plants 
are  up,  the  ground  is  lightly  ploughed  and  harrowed  to 
clear  away  the  young  grass  and  weeds  around  the  plants. 
After  the  plough  come  the  hands  with  weeding  hoes 
with  which  they  cut  out  the  surplus  plants  and  the  weeds, 
and  grass  in  the  rows.  The  plants  should  be  left  ten 
inches  to  twenty  inches  apart  according  to  soil.  The 
plants  grow  quite  rapidly  in  good  seasons  and  they  must 
be  ploughed  or  hoed  every  fifteen  to  twenty  days  to  keep 
down  the  grass  and  to  stimulate  the  growth  of  the  cotton. 
Light  ploughing  or  harrowing  is  best  as  a  rule.  When 
the  plant  has  begun  to  fruit  fairly  well,  ploughing  should 
cease,  unless  it  be  of  the  very  lightest  character. 

When  the  plants  are  about  six  or  eight  weeks  old  the 
"  squares  "  begin  to  appear  on  little  stems  growing  out  of 
the  main  stalk.  These  "  squares  "  are  hollow,  triangular- 
shaped  pyramids,  which  contain  the  young  bud  which  is 
to  produce  the  bloom.  ,  In  a  few  weeks  more  the  bloom 
appears.  It  is  large  and  creamy  white  the  first  day.  It 
is  of  striking  appearance,  among  the  green  foliage  of  the 
plant.  A  field  in  which  there  is  a  large  percentage 
of  white  blossoms  makes  a  beautiful  scene.  On  the  sec- 
ond day  the  bloom  is  pinkish  to  red  in  appearance,  and 
the  third  day  it  drops  off,  and  at  its  base  may  be  seen 
the  young  boll.     This  boll  is  in  the  shape  of  a   prolate 


202  TYPE  STUDIES 

spheroid  which  is  sharper  and  more  gently  tapering  towards 
its  apex  than  towards  its  base.  It  is  divided  into  four  or 
five  elongated  cells,  which  are  separated  by  longitudinal 
partitions  of  tough  fibre.  Each  of  these  cells  contains  a 
"lock"  of  cotton,  i,e,  a  number  of  seeds  surrounded  by 
cotton  fibre. 

This  boll  soon  grows  to  maturity,  when  it  turns  brown, 
or  is  streaked  with  brown  or  red  spots.  As  it  dries,  the 
pod  or  boll  cracks  open  longitudinally  along  four  or  five 
seams,  and  the  cotton  fibre  is  exposed  to  view.  In  two  or 
three  days  it  is  dry  enough  to  be  picked.  While  this  boll 
has  been  maturing,  the  plant  has  been  growing  rapidly, 
blooms  have  been  appearing,  and  young  bolls  have  been 
forming,  so  that  you  may  see  all  the  stages  of  fruiting  on  a 
single  stalk  from  the  young  "  square,"  which  can  be  scarcely 
detected  by  the  naked  eye,  to  open  bolls  with  fibre  ready 
to  be  picked.  The  plant,  with  good  seasons,  makes  fruit 
till  frost  stops  its  growth.  The  number  of  bolls  on  a  single 
plant  depends  upon  the  season,  the  cultivation,  the  soil, 
the  variety  of  cotton,  and  other  conditions.  You  will  thus 
see  that  many  things  affect  the  cotton  crop.  Some  stalks 
mature  150  to  200  or  more  bolls,  though  the  average  is  much 
less  than  this.  It  is  said  that,  with  a  reasonable  stand  of 
plants,  an  acre  that  will  average  ten  bolls  to  the  stalk  will 
produce  a  bale  of  lint  cotton.  This  is  above  the  average. 
The  plant  is  subject  to  diseases,  as  rust,  and  it  is  attacked 
by  bugs  and  worms,  which  sometimes  destroy  the  crop. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  worms  that  often  destroy  the 
cotton  plants  ;  the  cutworm  eats  off  the  young  sprout  down 
to  the  root,  the  boll-worm  gets  into  the  cotton  boll  and 
destroys  the  cotton,  and  the  army-worm  comes  in  August 
and  strips  the  plant  of  leaves  and  cotton  bolls. 


COTTON  AND   COTTON  PLANTATIONS  203 

The  cotton  boll  weevil  also,  in  the  last  ten  years,  has 
been  doing  increasing  damage  to  the  cotton  fields  of  Texas. 
After  spreading  north  and  east  from  Mexico  across  Texas, 
it  has  entered  Louisiana,  and  now  threatens  to  overrun  all 
the  cotton-growing  states.  This  weevil  punctures  the 
cotton  boll  with  its  beak  and  lays  its  eggs  in  the  puncture, 
where  the  grubs  develop  and  destroy  the  cotton.  During 
the  last  few  years  this  little  insect  is  estimated  to  have 
destroyed  $10,000,000  worth  of  cotton  each  year  in  Texas, 
besides  the  loss  to  shippers  and  manufacturers.  Several 
of  the  state  legislatures  have  appropriated  large  sums  of 
money  to  fight  the  spread  of  this  evil,  and  Congress  at 
Washington  has  lately  appropriated  several  hundred 
thousand  dollars  to  find  means  of  stopping  its  ravages. 

Too  much  rain  will  cause  to  be  produced  a  large  plant 
with  little  or  no  fruit.  If  there  comes  a  dry  spell,  and 
the  plant  has  managed  to  live  through  it,  seemingly  very 
well,  and  rains  suddenly  set  in,  the  plant  puts  on  new  life. 
In  this  case  it  sheds  off  all  young  squares,  and  even  young 
bolls,  and  quits  blooming.  It  goes  to  work,  making  more 
stalk  and  new  forms.  This  is  called  the  second  crop.  If 
there  is  time  for  it  to  mature,  the  crop  may  be  very  good. 
If  the  frost  catches  this  crop  the  yield  is  poor.  These  con- 
ditions all  vary  with  the  time  that  the  drought  strikes  the 
crop  and  the  time  of  frost. 

Cotton  picking  begins  as  soon  as  enough  bolls  have 
opened  to  justify  going  over  the  field  to  gather  them.  In 
the  lower  part  of  the  cotton  belt  this  may  begin  about  the 
middle  of  July  ;  in  the  upper  portions  about  September  1. 
The  seasons  cause  these  times  to  vary  much.  In  1902, 
the  first  bale  marketed  was  about  July  20th  ;  in  1903,  on 
August  1.     (In  1902,  the  price  paid  for  the  first  bale  was 


204  TYPE  STUDIES 

11  cents  per  pound  ;  in  1903,  15|  cents  per  pound.  In 
both  cases  the  bales  were  raised  and  sold  by  a  farmer  in 
south  Georgia.) 

The  cotton  is  picked  by  hand  ;  no  machine  has  yet  been 
invented  that  can  do  this  work  as  satisfactorily  as  it  can 
be  done  by  the  human  hand.  Negro  labor  is  employed 
very  largely  in  the  production  of  cotton,  especially  on 
the  large  plantations.  Many  of  the  smaller  farmers  have 
enough  hands  to  gather  their  crops,  but  where  the  lands 
are  rich  and  the  seasons  are  favorable  a  laborer  can  cultivate 
more  cotton  than  he  can  gather.  Then  extra  hands  must 
be  employed,  and  they  are  paid  so  much  a  hundred  pounds 
for  picking,  sometimes  50  to  75  cents,  or  more.  When  the 
cotton  has  just  opened  and  the  seeds  are  not  quite  dried, 
a  nimble  hand  can  pick  200,  300,  and  sometimes  even  400 
pounds  a  day.  The  picking  of  200  pounds  each  day,  how- 
ever, is  a  task  which  few  can  do.  The  average  amount 
would  not  exceed  possibly  from  100  to  125  pounds  a 
day. 

On  small  farms  near  the  settlements  the  hands  are  pro- 
vided with  baskets  and  sacks  made  of  some  coarse  cloth. 
The  hand  places  his  basket  at  some  convenient  point  and 
picks  the  cotton,  placing  it  in  his  sack,  strapped  to  him. 
When  the  sack  is  full  he  empties  it  in  the  basket.  He  con- 
tinues this  until  the  basket  is  full.  It  is  then  carried  to 
the  cotton-house  and  weighed,  and  an  account  is  kept  with 
each  hand  to  see  what  he  is  doing,  and,  if  he  is  paid  by  the 
quantity  picked,  to  determine  his  pay  for  the  day.  By 
keeping  an  account  of  weight,  the  farmer  can  also  know 
about  how  much  cotton  he  has  ready  for  ginning  at  any 
time.  This  picking  goes  on  till  the  crop  is  gathered. 
Sometimes  a  field  is  picked  over  many  times.    In  this  way 


COTTON  AND   COTTON  PLANTATIONS  205 

we  get  the  best  cotton.  Sometimes  the  field  is  picked  only 
once,  and  that  late  in  the  fall,  sometimes  in  the  winter. 
In  this  case  poor  cotton  is  obtained,  it  having  been  injured 
by  the  weather.  The  cotton  gets  stained  sometimes  with 
rust,  and  also  by  the  leaves  of  the  plant  when  they  are 
frost-bitten  and  still  moist. 

The  loads  of  sacks  are  carried  to  the  gin-house  or 
place  where  the  cotton  fibres  are  separated  from  the  seeds. 
Before  the  invention  of  the  cotton-gin  it  kept  one  person 
busy  a  day  to  separate  a  pound  of  cotton  from  the  seed. 
But  after  the  invention  of  the  cotton-gin  three  hundred 
pounds  could  be  separated  in  a  single  day  by  a  single  ma- 
chine. The  story  of  Whitney's  difficulties  and  successful 
invention  will  be  found  in  a  good  cyclopsedia  or  history. 
The  gin  itself  has  a  revolving  cylinder  with  nine-inch 
saws  half  an  inch  apart;  each  saw  passes  between  parallel 
wires  seizing  the  threads  or  fibres  of  cotton  and  pulling 
them  through,  but  leaving  the  seeds;  quickly  revolving 
brushes  sweep  the  cotton  from  the  teeth  of  the  saws  and  a 
blast  of  air  drives  the  cotton  to  a  condenser  and  cleanses 
it  from  dust.  The  cotton  room  of  the  gin-house  is  an  in- 
teresting place  with  its  great  piles  of  beautiful  snow-white 
cotton. 

Before  shipping,  the  cotton  is  piled  into  a  heavy  press, 
wrapped  in  a  stout  bagging,  tightly  pressed,  and  narrow 
strips  of  iron  are  clasped  round  the  bale  and  fastened.  This 
is  the  press-room,  and  the  workmen  are  grotesquely  cov- 
ered with  cotton,  as  in  the  gin-house.  The  cotton  bales, 
weighing  five  or  six  hundred  pounds,  are  hauled  to  the 
railroad  station,  or  to  the  steamboat  landing,  where  the 
stops  are  regularly  made  by  the  steamboats  to  take  off  the 
cotton.     It  is  then  carried  to  New  Orleans  or  Memphis, 


206 


TYPE  STUDIES 


whence  it  is  shipped  by  water  or  by  railroad  to  the  great 
factories  where  it  is  made  into  cloth  of  various  kinds. 

The  cotton-seeds  were  formerly  of  no  use,  but  now  they 
are  put  into  presses  where  the  oil  is  squeezed  out,  and, 
when  purified,  it  is  much  used  in  soap  making  and  as  a 
substitute  for  olive  oil.  The  cotton-seed  cake,  which  is 
left  after  the  oil  is  pressed  out,  is  also  used  as  fodder 
for  cattle,  and  the  cotton-seed  meal  as  a  fertilizer.     The 


Fig.  65. 

value  of  the  various  cotton-seed  products  taken  together 
amounts  to  millions  of  dollars  every  year. 

There  are  large  cotton-manufacturing  cities  in  New  Eng- 
land, such  as  Fall  River  and  Lowell.  Much  of  the  raw  cot- 
ton is  shipped  to  Boston  and  New  York,  whence  it  is  sent  to 
the  mills.  More  than  half  of  all  the  cotton  is  exported  to 
England  and  Europe  to  be  used  in  their  factories  and 
then  sent  out  over  the  world.  In  recent  years  large  fac- 
tories have  been  established  in  southern  cities,  as  at  Rich- 
mond, Atlanta,  Columbia,  Greenville,  Augusta,  Columbus, 
and  a  number  of  other  places,  where  the  cotton  can  be 
manufactured  into  cloth  without  shipping. 


COTTON  AND   COTTON  PLANTATIONS  207 

The  cotton  belt  stretches  from  North  Carolina  to  Texas, 
and  from  Kentucky  to  the  Gulf.  The  climate  is  hot  and 
negroes  perform  most  of  the  field  work.  The  planters  en- 
gaged in  the  cotton  production  often  depend  upon  the  sale 
of  cotton  for  everything  with  which  to  carry  on  the  work 
of  the  plantation.  They  scarcely  raise  the  corn  and  vege- 
tables necessary  for  -plantation  use.  When  the  price  of 
cotton  is  low,  or  when  a  bad  crop  comes,  many  of  the 
planters  often  have  to  run  in  debt  or  even  to  sell  their 
farms. 

The  chief  cities  where  cotton  is  collected  and  shipped 
are  Galveston,  New  Orleans,  Memphis,  Charleston,  Savan- 
nah, Norfolk,  and  New  York.  The  railroads  have  now 
become  of  very  great  importance  in  moving  the  immense 
cotton  crops  of  the  South. 

Immediately  after  the  war  the  cotton-planters  had  great 
difficulty  in  making  the  business  pay.  Wages  were  high, 
and  many  rich  lands  in  Texas  and  Arkansas  were  planted 
in  cotton,  so  that  there  was  over-production  of  cotton  and 
low  prices.  The  cotton-planters  have  been  urged  to  raise 
other  crops,  as  corn,  vegetables,  grain,  and  fruit,  and  to 
feed  hogs  and  cattle  for  their  own  meat  supply;  but  they 
have  been  slow  to  adopt  a  variety  of  crops  and  have 
depended  chiefly  upon  cotton.  Many  of  the  old  cotton 
plantations  have  lost  their  productiveness  because  there 
was  no  proper  rotation  of  crops. 

On  the  whole,  cotton  raising  is  very  profitable  and  is 
the  chief  source  of  wealth  in  the  South.  The  cultivation 
of  this  staple  in  that  section  began  about  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  coarse  clothing  was  early 
made  out  of  the  fibre.  Before  Whitney's  invention  of 
the  cotton  gin  in  1793,  however,  the  amount  of  cotton 


208  TYPE  STUDIES 

grown  in  the  Southern  States  was  comparatively  insig 
nificant.  In  1820  the  entire  crop  of  the  United  States 
was  455,000  bales,  and  in  1898  it  was  11,000,000  bales. 
About  68  per  cent  of  this  was  shipped  to  England  and 
other  foreign  countries.  The  United  States  raises  about 
two-thirds  of  the  cotton  crop  of  the  whole  world. 


SUGAR    PRODUCTION 


The  sugar  used  on  our  breakfast  table  may  come  from 
several  widely  separated  sources,  from  Louisiana,  Cuba,  or 
Germany.  Formerly  our  sugar  was  obtained  only  from 
the  warm,  semi-tropical  regions,  where  the  sugar-cane 
flourishes,  as  in  the  lowlands  of  Louisiana  or  the  West 
Indies.  But 
in  recent  years 
much  of  it 
comes  from 
the  beet-sugar 
farms  of  Eu- 
rope or  of 
our  Northern 
States. 

A  large 
sugar  planta- 
tion in  Louisi- 
ana illustrates 
the  older  and 

simpler  way  of  producing  sugar.  Such  a  plantation  may 
have  several  thousand  acres  planted  in  sugar-cane.  Near 
the  residence  of  the  planter  are  the  sugar-mills,  with  the 
engines,  vats,  and  machinery,  for  working  up  the  cane 
into  raw  sugar,  the  sugar  house,  and  also  the  buildings 
for  the  laborers. 

The  sugar-cane  is  best  raised  in  a  warm  climate,  where 
frost  seldom  comes,  and  on  a  rich  soil,  usually  in  lowlands, 
p  209 


Fig.  ()6. 

A  sugar-cane  field  in  Louisiana,  with  the  sugar  houses 
in  the  background. 


210  TYPE  STUDIES 

Sugar-cane  is  planted  by  laying  the  long  stalks  in  a  furrow 
in  rows  five  or  six  feet  apart  and  covering  them.  These 
stalks  'are  planted  during  the  summer  and  the  sprouts  do 
not  gain  their  full  growth  till  the  second  year.  The  fields 
are  well  cultivated  in  a  rich,  moist  soil.  The  canes  grow 
to  a  height  of  eight  to  sixteen  feet  and  are  from  one  to  two 
inches  in  diameter.  When  full  grown  the  stalk  and  pith  are 
saturated  with  a  rich,  sweet  juice,  from  which  sugar  is  made. 

The  ripe  stalks  are  cut  off  close  to  the  ground,  stripped 
of  their  leaves,  and  loaded  upon  carts  or  cars,  to  be  drawn  to 
the  sugar-mill.  The  roots  of  the  old  stalks  are  covered  with 
crushed  stalks  that  have  been  through  the  mill  and  by 
fertilizers.  New  shoots  spring  up  and  grow  to  full-sized 
stalks,  which  are  later  harvested.  This  process  of  sprout- 
ing or  rattooning  may  be  continued  for  several  years,  but 
the  product  from  rattooning  gradually  declines,  and  the 
field  after  a  few  years  must  be  replanted. 

The  sugar-mill,  run  by  a  steam-engine,  consists  of  heavy, 
close-set  parallel  rollers  (something  like  a  clothes-wringer) 
between  which  the  stalks  are  passed  and  crushed.  Some- 
times the  crushing  power  isincreasedby  hydraulic  pressure. 
The  more  juice  squeezed  out,  the  greater  is  the  amount 
of  sugar  obtained  and  the  dryer  the  fuel.  The  crushed 
stalks  are  then  used  as  fuel  for  the  engines. 

The  juice  squeezed  from  the  stalks  is  collected  in  a 
trough  and  then  carried  by  pipes  and  dropped,  through 
fine  screens  for  removing  impurities,  into  clarifiers,  which 
are  large  basins  or  iron  tanks,  each  holding  six  or  eight 
hundred  gallons  of  juice.  Heat  is  then  turned  on  till  the 
juice  reaches  a  temperature  of  130  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
milk  of  lime  is  added  to  the  juice,  and  the  whole  heated 
to  the  boiling-point.     A  thick  scum   forms  on  top  which 


SUGAR  PBOBUCTION  211 

contains  many  of  the  impurities  in  the  syrup.  The  clear 
juice  is  then  drawn  off  and  run  into  a  series  of  five  pans, 
where  it  is  gradually  boiled  down,  the  syrup  becoming 
thicker  as  it  passes  from  pan  to  pan,  till  in  the  last  it  is 
ready  to  crystallize.  In  a  second  series  of  shallow  pans,  into 
which  it  is  poured,  it  is  then  allowed  to  crystallize  into 
sugar  and  is  transferred  to  hogsheads  placed  in  the  curing- 
house,  where  the  molasses  is  drained  off.  This  gives 
the  brown  sugar  sent  to  the  refineries,  where  it  passes 
through  a  series  of  processes,  the  result  of  which  is  the 
white  refined  sugar  of  our  tables. 

The  above  general  process,  thus  briefly  described,  is  the 
old  method  of  sugar  making  still  common  on  many  plan- 
tations and  in  the  West  Indies.  Several  important  im- 
provements upon  this  method  have  been  made,  requiring 
expensive  machinery  and  more  scientific  knowledge.  First 
is  the  process  of  diffusion  by  which  the  canes  are  sliced, 
soaked,  and  squeezed,  and  a  much  greater  percentage  of 
sugar  obtained.  Second  is  the  use  of  the  vacuum  pan  by 
which  the  syrup  is  boiled  at  a  low  temperature.  Third  is 
the  centrifugal  separator  by  which  the  sugar  is  drained 
of  its  syrup. 

The  raw  sugar  produced  on  the  plantations  is  shipped 
to  New  Orleans  or  to  northern  cities,  where  there  are 
great  sugar-refineries  or  factories  devoted  to  the  purifying 
of  raw  sugar  and  syrup,  and  where  the  white  sugar  of 
commerce  in  its  various  forms  is  the  result. 

In  these  refineries  a  complex  scientific  process  of  treating 
the  crude  sugar  is  worked  out,  which  can  only  be  briefly 
indicated.  The  sugar  is  again  brought  to  a  liquid  form, 
is  filtered  through  twilled  cotton  bags,  and  then  passed 
through  deep  layers  of  animal  charcoal  to  remove  color.    In 


212  TYPE  STUDIES 

vacuum  pans  the  sugar  is  again  crystallized  and  the  syrup 
carried  off  either  by  filtration  or  by  centrifugal  action. 

Improved  machinery  has  been  introduced  upon  some  of 
the  plantations  of  Louisiana  and  scientific  methods  are 
used  by  which  a  greater  percentage  of  sugar  is  obtained  at 
as  low  cost  as  possible. 

In  addition  to  the  cane-sugar  produced  in  Louisiana  and 
in  the  gulf  states,  we  receive  a  large  amount  of  siich 
sugar  from  Cuba  and  the  West  Indies.  The  processes  of 
sugar  production  in  Cuba  are  simple,  old-fashioned  ones 
and  are  wasteful. 

As  a  result  of  the  recent  Spanish  War,  Cuba  has  been 
brought  into  closer  political  relation  with  the  United 
States.  The  chief  difficulty  in  establishing  proper  commer- 
cial relations  with  Cuba  was  found  in  fixing  the  tariff  on 
sugar,  as  the  sugar  producers  in  the  United  States  were 
not  willing  to  admit  Cuban  sugar  free  of  duty. 

We  also  receive  much  cane-sugar  from  the  Hawaiian 
and  Philippine  islands,  where  the  climatic  and  soil  con- 
ditions are  similar  to  those  of  Cuba.  Notice  on  a  map 
of  the  world  the  latitude  of  Cuba,  Louisiana,  Hawaii,  and 
the  Philippines.  It  will  be  observed  that  cane-sugar 
production  occupies  a  belt  in  the  semi-tropical  regions, 
extending  perhaps  round  the  world. 

In  recent  years  beet  sugar  has  gained  great  irqportance 
for  the  United  States.  First,  because  a  large  part  of  the 
sugar  consumed  in  this  country  is  beet  sugar  brought  from 
Germany  and  costing  us  many  millions  of  dollars  ;  and 
second,  because  in  several  states  sugar  beets  have  been 
successfully  raised  and  large  sugar-beet  factories  started. 
From  the  experience  of  France,  Germany,  and  Austria, 
there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  the  United  States,  with  its 


SUGAR   PRODUCTION 


213 


rich  and  varied  soil,  may  not  produce  as  much  beet  sugar  at 
least  as  it  wishes  to  consume.  The  people  of  the  United 
States  consume  more  sugar  per  capita  than  the  people  of 
any  other  country,  and  it  will  be  a  great  economy  and  in 
fact  a  large  source  of  wealth  if  we  can  produce  our 
own  sugar. 

In  the    last  few  years  sugar-beet  factories  have  been 
established  in  California,  Colorado,  Illinois,  Michigan,  and 


Fig.  67. 
Spreckels's  beet-sugar  factory,  Salinas  Valley,  California. 

other  states,  and  large  areas  of  adjacent  farm  lands  have 
been  given  to  the  raising  of  sugar  beets. 

For  the  raising  of  sugar  beets  a  rich  soil  is  required, 
and  the  effort  of  the  farmer  is  to  produce  as  large  a  ton- 
nage of  beets  per  acre  and  as  rich  a  percentage  of  sugar 
in  the  beets  as  possible.  It  takes  about  five  months  to 
raise  a  good  crop  of  beets.  The  seed  is  planted  in  rows 
about  eighteen  inches  apart  and  very  carefully  cultivated. 
The  expense  of  repeated  ploughing,  hoeing,  thinning,  and 


214  TYPE  STUDIES 

harvesting  is  great,  but  the  tonnage  is  heavy  and  with 
good  yield  the  profits  are  large. 

In  Germany  a  strong  effort  has  been  made  by  a  careful 
selection  of  seed  to  procure  the  largest  percentage  of  sugar. 
The  result  of  these  scientific  experiments  and  this  care  in 
selection  is  that  the  beets  now  raised  in  Germany  produce 
about  double  the  amount  of  sugar  per  hundred  pounds  that 
they  did  fifty  years  ago.  It  is  a  good  illustration  of  the 
value  of  scientific  farming. 

In  the  year  1800  when  Napoleon  was  at  war  with 
England  he  found  his  ports  blockaded  by  English  ships 
and  France's  supply  of  sugar  cut  off.  He  offered  a  prize 
of  one  hundred  thousand  francs  to  any  one  who  would 
;devise  a  profitable  method  of  extracting  sugar  from  beets. 
jThe  French  chemists  undertook  the  work,  and  later  the 
German  chemists  carried  the  experiments  forward  ;  but  it 
"was  not  till  about  1840  or  later  that  commercial  sugar  was 
produced.  Both  the  French  and  German  governments 
gave  a  bounty  on  home  sugar,  and  thus  a  great  industry 
was  gradually  developed  which  produced  hundreds  of  mil- 
lions of  dollars'  worth  of  sugar. 

In  the  fall  the  beets  are  dug,  topped,  and  hauled  or 
shipped  to  the  factory.  The  process  of  extracting  the  pure 
sugar  from  beets  is  much  more  difficult  than  from  cane. 

When  the  beets  are  first  brought  to  the  factory  they 
are  trimmed  and  washed  and  then  thrown  into  a  great 
hopper  where  they  drop  upon  a  series  of  knives  which 
slice  them  into  fine  chips,  almost  a  pulp.  This  pulp  is 
then  thrown  into  a  series  of  upright  tanks  or  cylinders 
which  are  closed  tight.  Twelve  of  these  cylinders  form  a 
complete  series  and  each  holds  two  or  three  tons  of  sliced 
beets.      After  steaming  the  beets  to  soften  them,  water  is 


SUGAR   PRODUCTION'  215 

let  into  the  first  cylinder  and  soaks  the  sliced  beets,  thus 
drawing  out  the  sugar  into  the  water.  This  is  called  the 
process  of  diffusion.  This  sweetened  water  is  then  forced 
into  the  second  cylinder  where  a  further  process  of  dif- 
fusion takes  place  and  so  on  to  the  eighth,  where  the 
water  has  become  loaded  with  the  sweet  juices  and  is 
drawn  off.  The  first  cylinder  is  then  disconnected  and  a 
ninth  cylinder  with  fresh  pulp  is  connected  with  the 
eighth  and  the  water  from  the  eighth  passes  on  to  it.  The 
pulp  of  the  first  cylinder  is  removed  and  its  juices  squeezed 
out.  Thus  four  cylinders  are  free  at  any  time  for  remov- 
ing old  pulp  and  receiving  new. 

The  water  saturated  with  sugar  is  now  boiled  down  in  a 
manner  similar  to  that  described  in  the  case  of  cane-sugar 
and  finally  crystallized  into  brown  sugar.  The  impurities 
in  beet  sugar  are  greater  in  quantity  and  much  more  diffi- 
cult to  separate  from  the  sugar  than  in  the  case  of  the 
cane.  The  process  of  refining  raw  sugar  is  about  the 
same  in  the  two  kinds. 

A  study  of  the  map  of  those  parts  of  the  United  States 
and  of  Europe  where  beet  sugar  is  produced  will  reveal 
the  fact  that  the  beet-sugar  production  lies  in  a  belt  in 
the  temperate  zone,  parallel  to  the  cane-sugar  belt,  but 
much  farther  north. 

A  third  kind  of  sugar  much  produced  in  the  United 
States  is  the  maple  sugar  obtained  from  the  hard  or  sugar 
maple  tree.  The  old-fashioned  sugar-camp,  with  its 
trees  tapped  and  running  sugar  water  from  the  spouts 
inserted  in  the  holes  bored  into  the  tree  is  a  favorite  picture 
with  people  of  the  hard-wood  forest  region.  The  sugar 
water  collected  from  pails  or  wooden  troughs  is  boiled 
down   in   great   kettles   till   it  sugars   off.       The   maple 


216 


TYPE  STUDIES 


sugar  does  not  require  a  process  of  refining,  as  the  peculiar 
flavor  given  it  by  the  maple  tree  is  its  most  desirable 
quality  and  gives  it  a  higher  value  in  the  market.  The 
sugar-producing  forests  are  in  Vermont,  New  York,  Ohio, 
Michigan,  and  other  states  where  the  hard- wood  forests 
prevail.  In  Vermont  and  other  northern  states  where 
sugar  camps  abound  more  elaborate  methods  are  em- 
ployed.   Sugar-houses  with  tanks  and  evaporating  machin- 


FiG.  68. 

Old  way  of  boiling  the  maple  sap  in  the  forest  to  make  maple  sugar.   In  many- 
sections  this  is  an  important  industry  in  the  spring. 

ery,  pans,  etc.,  are  provided.  Loaf-sugar  and  canned 
maple  syrup  are  put  up  in  considerable  quantities  for  the 
market. 

A  comparison  of  the  three  kinds  of  sugar  and  their 
modes  of  production  will  bring  out  the  fact  that  they  are 
all  derived  from  vegetable  growths  by  extracting  the 
sweet  juices  containing  the  sugar.  The  process  of  obtain- 
ing the  juices  varies,  but  the  boiling  down  and  crystalliza- 
tion of  the  sugar  in  all  cases  is  the  same.      The  process  of 


SUGAR  PRODUCTION 


217 


refining  and  careful  purification  is  common  to  the  cane- 
sugar  and  beet  sugar  of  commerce. 

The  production  of  beet  sugar  is  interesting  because  it  is 
based  entirely  upon  careful  scientific  experiment,  and  the 
invention  and  use  of  complex  machinery.  It  is  only  highly 
civilized  nations  that  are  capable  of  working  out  such 
difficult  problems  and  creating  great  industries  based  upon 
pure  scientific  knowledge. 


Fig.  69. 
Distribution  of  sugar-cane  and  beet  sugar. 

In  connection  with  this  topic  a  study  of  the  map  of 
North  America  and  of  the  world  for  the  purpose  of  locat- 
ing the  three  sugar-producing  belts  is  very  appropriate. 

This  topic  like  some  others  is  a  good  type  of  the  three 
stages  in  the  systematic  and  natural  treatment  of  a  sub- 
ject :  (1)  Agriculture ;  the  beet  farm  or  the  sugar  planta- 
tion ;  (2)  the  process  of  manufacture,  including  the  cruder 
forms  of  manufacturing  on  the  plantation,  the  sugar 
factory,  the  refinery,  and  the  cities  which  are  the  centres 
of  sugar-refining;  and  (3)  the  commercial  routes  by 
which  sugar  is  brought  to  market,  and  the  chief  shipping 
points  and  centres  of  the  sugar  industry. 


A  CATTLE  RANCH 

On  the  cattle  ranches  of  the  western  plains  are  found 
the  rough-riders  and  bronco-tamers,  whose  free  life  on 
horseback  is  so  attractive  to  the  boys.  The  raising  of 
cattle  on  these  ranches  is  the  main  business  over  large 
stretches  of  country.     The  Great  Plains  that  lie  just  east 


Fig.  71. 
Cattle  feeding  on  the  Great  Plains,  where  the  herds  of  bison  formerly  roamed. 

of  the  Rocky  Mountains  from  Canada  to  Texas  are  chiefly 
valuable  for  cattle  raising,  and  it  is  here  and  among  the 
foot-hills  that  the  cowboys  are  at  home. 

Such  a  cattle  ranch  as  we  are  describing  lies  in  a  creek 
bottom  where  there  are  grassy  meadows,  and  a  pasture  is 
fenced  in  for  the  grazing  of  the  horses.  There  are  scat- 
tered groves  of  cottonwood  along  the  stream,  and  near  one 
of  these  groves  is  a  large  log  house  for  the  owner  of  the 
herd  and  ranch.  Close  by  is  a  long,  low  house,  with 
kitchen  and  rooms  for  the  cowboys.     A  blacksmith  shop 

218 


Fig.  70. 

Scene  in  the  ranch  country.  Upper  picture,  a  typical  ranch  house  on  the 
banks  of  a  stream  in  western  North  Dakota.  Middle  picture,  a  ranch  house 
and  *'  the  range."    Lower  picture,  a  group  of  cowboys  at  the  ranch  house. 


A   CATTLE  BANCH 


219 


stands  on  one  side  of  the  enclosed  lot,  and  barns  and  cat- 
tle sheds  are  placed  on  the  other  two  sides.  A  few  stacks 
of  hay  mowed  from  the  bottom-land  are  seen  near  the  cow 
sheds.  A  tall  windmill  stands  by  the  barn  with  large 
troughs  below  for  the  water  pumped  by  the  wind. 

Low  hills  line  the  two  sides  of  the  valley,  and  beyond 
these  hills  the  level  and  rolling  plains  stretch  away  for 
miles  without  sign  of  tree 
or  even  grass ;  for  the 
short,  thin  grass  that 
grows  upon  these  dry 
plains  cures  on  the 
ground  during  the  sum- 
mer, and  the  whole  wide 
stretch  of  plain  looks 
like  a  lifeless  desert. 

Some  men  come  out  of 
the  low  stable  in  which 
the  ponies  are  feeding. 
Their  broad-brimmed 
hats  and  fringed  leather 
leggings,  together  with 
the  rough  spurs  hanging 
to  their  heels,  soon  con- 
vince us  that  we  are  among  the  cowboys.  They  are 
small,  hardy-looking  men,  thoroughly  browned  and  hard- 
ened by  exposure.  A  saddled  pony  is  brought  out  with 
a  rope  hanging  to  the  saddle-bow,  and  a  cowboy  mounts 
and  gallops  across  the  bottom  to  the  hills  and  range 
beyond  to  bring  in  a  drove  of  cows. 

A  large  number  of  ponies  are   seen  grazing  in  a  field 
fenced  with  barbed  wire. 


Fig.  72. 

A  cowboy  with  his  rope,  or  lariat,  with 
which  he  captures  the  steers  by 
throwing  a  noose  over  their  necks, 
or  around  their  legs. 


220  TYPE  STUDIES 

The  owner  of  this  ranch  has  a  herd  of  three  thousand  cat- 
tle, which  run  at  will  upon  the  plains  of  the  surrounding 
region.  There  are  no  fences  to  separate  this  ranch  from  its 
neighbors  on  the  several  sides,  so  that  the  cattle  mix  freely 
with  those  of  other  ranches  for  a  hundred  miles  or  more. 
All  these  lands  belong  to  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  which  allows  the  cattle  owners  to  graze  their  herds 
freely  upon  the  range.  Only  along  the  valleys  of  the 
stream  where  there  are  meadow-lands  that  can  be  farmed 
or  irrigated  is  the  land  taken  up  for  homesteading.  The 
cattle  owner  buys  up  such  farms  and  then  allows  his 
cattle  to  range  on  the  neighboring  plains. 

During  the  summer  time  there  is  little  rain  in  this 
region,  but  in  the  early  spring  showers  start  the  grass  to 
a  quick  growth,  and  as  soon  as  the  hot  weather  of  summer 
sets  in  the  thin  grass  begins  to  dry  and  cure  on  the  ground, 
and  supplies  a  nourishing  food  for  cattle  during  the  fall 
and  winter.  In  the  winter  time  snow  often  covers  the 
ground,  but  if  not  too  deep  it  soon  melts  away  and  leaves 
the  grass  exposed  again.  The  cattle  are  expected  to  get 
their  own  living  both  in  summer  and  winter  from  the 
scanty  grass  on  the  plains.  In  the  winter,  also,  instead  of 
water  they  eat  the  snow,  and  are  thus  able  to  graze  far- 
ther away  from  the  streams  than  in  summer.  In  the  long, 
sunny  days  of  summer  time  the  streams  are  often  dry  or 
nearly  so,  but  wells  have  been  bored  at  suitable  camps  and 
ranch-stations,  where  water  can  be  pumped  by  windmills 
and  supplied  to  the  herds. 

All  kinds  of  supplies  for  the  lonely  ranch  are  brought 
by  wagons  from  a  town  150  miles  away  at  one  of  the  rail- 
way stations.  The  canvas-covered  wagons,  loaded  with 
food,  clothing,    tools,    and   weapons,  saddles   and    equip- 


A   CATTLE  RANCH  221 

ment,  are  hauled  to  the  ranch  by  mules  or  yokes  of 
oxen. 

The  owner  of  the  ranch  was  an  eastern  man  who  came 
west  with  several  thousand  dollars  to  make  his  fortune  in 
the  cattle  business.  Buying  a  small  herd  of  two  hundred 
cattle  at  first,  he  steadily  increased  his  herd  from  year  to 
year,  taking  good  care  of  the  young  calves,  and  only  sell- 
ing off  the  steers  which  were  old  enough  to  send  to  mar- 
ket. By  constant  watchfulness  over  his  herd  in  all  seasons, 
and  by  buying  up  more  cattle  with  the  profits  from  sales, 
he  has  gradually  collected  a  large  and  valuable  body  of 
animals.  He  has  had,  also,  the  trouble  and  expense  of 
securing  good  cowboys  and  ponies  for  his  ranch,  together 
with  the  usual  running  expenses  for  board,  housekeeping, 
stables,  and  other  incidentals.  He  also  runs  the  risk 
every  year  of  great  losses,  from  storms  which  freeze 
the  cattle,  or  from  diseases  which  destroy,  or  from  cattle 
thieves.  The  owner  or  manager  of  a  cattle  ranch,  there- 
fore, must  thoroughly  understand  all  the  difficulties  of  his 
business,  and  be  constantly  on  the  watch. 

His  chief  helpers  are  cowboys,  who  receive  as  wages 
from  f 25  to  f40  a  month  besides  their  board  and  keep. 
The  cowboys  are  usually  trained  to  their  work  from  boy- 
hood. Living  almost  constantly  on  horseback,  except 
when  asleep,  they  become  the  most  expert  horsemen. 
Some  of  them  are  wonderfully  skilful  in  riding  and  mas- 
tering the  wildest  and  wickedest  horses.  But  most  of  all, 
they  must  have  skill  in  using  the  rope  or  lariat  which 
hangs  from  the  saddle-bow.  This  rope  is  the  most 
useful  instrument  in  the  hands  of  the  cowboy.  By  long 
practice  he  can  swing  it  around  a  steer's  horns  or  hind 
feet  and  quickly  bring  him  to  the  ground.     In  handling 


222  TYPE  STUDIES 

the  cattle  in  the  corral  or  in  the  plains,  this  use  of  the 
rope  is  all-important. 

As  the  cattle  scatter  out  over  the  plains,  it  is  the  business 
of  the  cowboys  to  keep  track  of  them  as  far  as  possible,  to 
go  to  neighboring  ranches  for  stray  cattle,  look  after  the 
cows  and  calves,  see  that  water  is  supplied,  and  in  winter 
shelter  them,  if  possible,  from  storms.  The  cowboy  must 
be  out  in  all  sorts  of  weather,  exposed  to  cold  and  storm 
and  hunger,  and  must  be  able  to  find  his  way  over  a  wild 
and  desert  region  in  all  sorts  of  weather,  day  and  night. 


Fig.  73. 

A  scene  during  a  round-up,  when  great  numbers  of  cattle  are  bunched 
together. 

Twice  each  year  it  is  the  special  labor  of  the  cowboys 
to  round  up  the  herds  over  a  large  region  of  country.  The 
cattle  from  many  ranches  having  become  mixed  on  the 
plains,  the  stockmen  with  their  cowboys  combine  to  collect 
them.  The  captain  or  general  manager  of  the  round-up,  at 
an  appointed  time  and  place,  meets  all  the  foremen  or  ranch 
owners  and  cowboys  from  the  different  ranches.  A  wagon 
from  one  of  the  ranches  carries  bedding,  food,  and  a  mess  kit 
for  a  dozen  or  more  cowboys,  and  each  cowboy  brings  to  the 
round-up  eight  or  ten  tough,  experienced  little  ponies. 


A   CATTLE  RANCH  223 

The  captain  of  the  round-up  divides  up  his  men  into  at 
least  three  large  groups,  one  group  scattering  out  fifteen 
or  twenty  miles  on  the  left,  the  other  on  the  right,  the 
third  in  the  centre,  drawing  together  toward  the  central 
line  of  march  all  the  cattle  in  a  strip  of  country  thirty  or 
forty  miles  wide.  Starting  out  before  sun-up,  by  noon 
they  are  able  to  bring  the  different  herds  together,  at  one 
large  rendezvous.  The  afternoon  is  spent  in  "  working  " 
the  herd  already  collected.  Cowboys  from  the  different 
ranches  ride  in  among  the  cattle,  and  by  the  brands  pick 
out  their  own  cattle  and,  ''cutting  them  out"  from  the 
main  herd,  bring  them  together.  Later  the  young  calves 
and  unbranded  cattle  are  corralled,  and  the  branding  irons 
are  used  to  stamp  them  with  the  owner's  mark.  Each 
calf  has  to  be  caught  with  the  rope,  thrown,  and  held  down, 
while  the  branding  instrument  is  applied.  At  night  each 
herd  is  closely  bunched  together  and  guarded,  and  early 
the  next  morning  the  two  flanking  divisions  of  cowboys 
are  sent  out  again  to  gather  in  more  cattle,  while  the  herds 
previously  gathered  move  on  to  the  next  rendezvous.  The 
cowboys  are  on  their  ponies  twelve  or  sixteen  hours  a  day, 
much  of  the  time  moving  with  speed.  After  perhaps  six 
weeks  of  continuous  labor  the  whole  territory  has  been 
worked  over  and  the  cattle  brought  together,  divided  up, 
branded,  and  returned  to  their  separate  ranches. 

A  cowboy  needs  several  ponies  on  the  round-up.  A 
pony  is  not  used  more  than  one  day  in  four,  resting  and 
feeding  between  times,  as  the  travel  over  the  rough  range 
country  is  swift  and  hard. 

Sometimes  the  nights  are  cold  and  stormy,  and  the  men 
bunking  under  the  wagons  are  drenched  with  rain.  On 
such  a  night  the  cattle  in  the  herd  may  become  restless 


224  TYPE  STUDIES 

and  break  away  from  the  guards,  scattering  over  the  plains, 
and  causing  endless  trouble  in  collecting  them  again. 

During  the  whole  six  weeks  or  more  of  the  round-up, 
the  cowboys  are  employed  from  twelve  to  sixteen  hours  a 
day  at  the  roughest  and  most  exhausting  work ;  but  in 
spite  of  this,  it  is  probably  the  most  enjoyable  part  of  the 
cowboy's  life.  There  is  no  end  of  fun  and  banter  and 
rivalry  among  the  men  from  different  ranches.  While  in 
camp,  the  skilful  riders  tame  the  worst  bucking  ponies, 
and  there  are  plenty  of  horse-races  and  foot-races,  shooting 
matches  and  other  sports.  For  months  the  boys  have  been 
accustomed  only  to  the  lonely  life  of  the  ranch,  and  this 
season  of  round-up  where  a  hundred  or  more  cowboys 
meet  and  work  and  camp  together,  is  full  of  excitement 
and  interest. 

These  great  round-ups  take  place  at  least  twice  a  year — 
in  the  fall  and  spring.  In  the  spring  round-up  the  cattle 
are  collected  after  the  winter  storms  and  losses,  the  calves 
are  branded,  and  the  herd  brought  to  the  home  ranch, 
where  they  are  again  turned  upon  the  nearer  range.  In 
the  fall  round-up  the  well-matured  beef  cattle  are  selected 
and  prepared  for  shipment  to  Omaha  or  Kansas  City. 
First  they  are  driven  to  the  nearest  railroad  station,  and 
there  loaded  on  trains  for  those  great  centres  of  the  cattle 
trade. 

All  cattle  are  branded  before  they  are  turned  upon  the 
range.  For  this  purpose  the  herd  is  got  together  in  the 
corral  or  pen,  and  the  cowboy  rides  in  with  his  rope  and 
brings  the  steer  or  cow  to  the  ground,  the  horse  being 
almost  as  skilful  as  his  rider  in  throwing  the  cattle.  Then 
a  red-hot  iron  brand  is  applied  to  the  shoulder,  hip,  or  side 
of  the  animal,  burning  the  sign  or  figure  into  the  hide. 


A    CATTLE  BANCH 


225 


These  brands  are  all  registered  by  the  stockmen,  and  no 
two  ranches  or  stockmen  are  allowed  to  use  the  same  sign 
or  mark. 

The  cowboys  are  also  skilful  in  the  use  of  firearms,  and 
usually  go  well  armed.  They  are,  for  the  most  part, 
quiet  and  orderly,  except  when  they  sometimes  collect 
in  towns,  where  they  are  apt  to  visit  the  saloons  and 
horse-races  and  get  into  street  brawls.  Men  are  often 
killed  in  these  encounters,  and  there  is  often  seen  in 
the  border  towns 
visited  by  cowboys 
all  the  roughness  of 
frontier  life.  But 
they  are  as  a  class 
honest  and  skilful 
in  their  work,  en- 
tirely devoted  to  the 
interests  of  their 
employer,  and  to 
strangers  friendly 
and  hospitable. 

The  ranchmen  and  cowboys  have  had  much  trouble 
with  horse  thieves  and  cattle  thieves.  The  rough  frontier 
is  the  natural  place  for  criminals  and  bad  men  to  collect. 
When  the  buffalo  were  still  abundant  on  the  plains,  these 
men  found  amusement  in  killing  buffalo;  but  when  the 
buffalo  were  all  gone,  they  must  either  turn  to  some  honest 
business  or  become  thieves,  preying  upon  the  cattlemen. 
The  cattlemen  banded  together  to  put  an  end  to  horse 
stealing  and  cattle  thieving  and  killing.  The  thieves 
formed  bands,  which  collected  at  some  hut  or  hiding-place 
in  the  foot-hills,  where  they  were  pursued  and  hunted  out 

Q 


Fig.  74. 

Picture  showing  the  mother  with  her  brand,  a 
calf  following  her,  and  a  cowboy  about  to 
catch  the  calf  and  brand  it. 


226  TYPE  STUDIES 

by  the  cattlemen.  Battles  were  sometimes  fought,  and 
many  men  were  killed  in  these  conflicts  between  the  cow- 
boys and  the  thieves.  When  once  caught,  the  thieves  were 
hanged,  and  the  western  country  has  now  been  well  freed 
from  such  criminals. 

The  cattle  business  in  the  northwest,  in  Montana* 
Wyoming,  and  the  Dakotas,  suffers  greatly  from  occa- 
sional severe  winters.  Even  in  Kansas  and  Colorado 
the  winter  blizzards  have  done  great  damage.  The 
cattle  of  the  plains  were  not  protected  with  barns  and 
sheds  or  comfortable  strawstacks,  as  in  the  farming 
states  farther  east.  When  such  a  freezing  blizzard  from 
the  northwest  strikes  in,  the  cattle  can  only  huddle 
together  and  turn  their  tails  to  the  pitiless  storm.  A 
herd  is  often  driven  for  miles  before  the  face  of  such  a 
storm.  If  they  come  to  some  impassable  stream  or  deep 
railroad  cut,  they  huddle  together  till  frozen  in  their 
tracks.  The  skeletons  of  dead  animals  are  found  thick 
piled  in  such  a  place.  In  the  spring  of  1872,  at  the 
close  of  a  hard  winter,  the  herds  of  western  Kansas  had 
lost  about  half  their  cattle  in  the  severe  winter  storms. 
In  the  spring  of  1881  the  plains  at  the  edge  of  the 
foot-hills  in  Colorado  were  strewn  with  the  carcasses  or 
bones  of  animals  that  had  starved  or  frozen  in  the  fierce 
storms  of  the  preceding  winter. 

When  the  snow  falls  deep  upon  the  plains,  it  com- 
pletely covers  the  feed,  and  unless  it  soon  melts  away, 
the  cattle  starve.  Cold,  sleety  rains,  which  soak  the 
hides  of  the  cattle  and  cover  the  plains  with  a  sheet  of 
ice,  are  very  severe.  The  bodies  of  the  cattle  become 
coated  with  the  chilling  ice  and  the  grass  is  changed 
into  icicles,  so  that  the  cattle    both    freeze    and    starve. 


A   CATTLE  RANCH  227 

In  preparation  for  such  weather  it  is  the  work  of  the 
cowboys  to  drive  the  herds  into  sheltered  valleys  be- 
hind the  hills  and  to  find  a  range  w^here  the  grass  is 
still  abundant.  When  cattle  have  been  frozen  upon  the 
plains,  their  hides  are  still  valuable,  and  the  men  are 
kept  busy  searching  out  the  carcasses  and  getting  the 
skins.  The  losses  of  the  ranch  owners  during  such 
severe  winters  are  very  discouraging,  and  men  often  give 
up  the  business.  It  is  also  a  great  pity  and  inhuman- 
ity to  expose  animals  to  cold  and  starvation  in  this 
wholesale  way.  Many  men  are  too  considerate  and 
kind-hearted  to  engage  in  a  business  which  involves 
such  cruelty  and  suffering. 

Along  the  river  valleys,  where  the  meadows  can  be 
irrigated  and  a  good  store  of  hay  secured,  it  is  possible 
in  many  places  to  put  up  stacks  of  hay  which  can  be 
used  to  help  feed  the  cattle  through  the  severe  winter 
storms.  In  this  way  small  herds  can  be  well  taken 
care  of  through  the  winter.  Cows  with  young  calves 
suffer  most  with  winter  cold  and  storm.  Therefore  they 
are  kept  mostly  upon  the  warmer  plains  of  Texas,  while 
thousands  of  steers,  bred  on  these  southern  plains,  have 
been  driven  north  to  spend  the  fall  on  the  grassy  plains 
of  Wyoming  and  Montana.  In  the  same  way  other 
thousands  of  young  steers  from  the  farm  lands  of  Kan- 
sas and  Nebraska  have  been  driven  west  a  few  hundred 
miles  to  feed  on  the  ranges. 

In  recent  years  the  great  danger  of  the  cattle  business 
in  the  northwest  has  been  the  overstocking  of  the  range; 
that  is,  the  collection  and  increase  of  cattle  on  the  ranches 
till  there  is  not  sufficient  grass  to  feed  them  and  supply 
grazing.      When   grazing   lands   have   been    too   closely 


228  TYPE  STUDIES 

cropped,  the  grass  dies  out,  and  the  land  becomes  almost 
worthless  for  range.  The  cattlemen  themselves  have 
been  compelled  to  combme  and  Umit  the  number  of  cattle 
turned  loose  upon  the  plains.  A  single  cow  or  steer  re- 
quires from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  acres  of  land  to  supply 
sufficient  grass.  In  the  rich  farmlands  of  Iowa  one  or 
two  acres  would  supply  enough  food  for  an  animal.  This 
shows  how  sparse  and  thin  the  western  grass  is. 

The  western  part  of  Texas  is  most  favorably  situated 
for  the  cattle  business,  and  here  are  found  the  greatest 
cattle  ranches.  Wealthy  men  have  bought  up  or  leased 
from  the  state  of  Texas  large  areas  of  country,  which  they 
surround  with  wire  fences  and  use  for  cattle  ranges. 

In  the  Review  of  Reviews  for  September,  1901,  Mr. 
Barker  says :  "  Texas  is  noted  for  the  number  and  extent 
of  its  ranches.  Of  a  total  of  several  thousand  [ranches], 
they  vary  in  size  from  a  few  thousand  to  several  million 
acres,  the  large  ones  averaging  50,000  acres.  The  greatest 
is  the  'X.  I.  T.,'  in  the  Panhandle,  which  embraces  half  a 
dozen  counties  and  contains  nearly  3,000,000  acres.  It 
belongs  to  the  '  Capitol  Syndicate,'  a  company  of  men  who 
received  this  vast  territory  some  twenty  years  ago  in 
return  for  providing  the  magnificent  state  house  at 
Austin.  The  ranch  is  divided  into  seven  divisions,  each 
managed  by  a  foreman,  and  each  connected  with  the  head- 
quarters by  means  of  telephones.  The  whole  is  run  with 
the  system  and  despatch  which  characterize  all  great 
industries.  On  this  ranch  now  run  considerably  over 
100,000  head  of  cattle,  and  an  idea  of  its  size  may  be 
gained  from  the  fact  that  the  pasture  fence  extends  210 
miles  in  one  direction  and  25  in  another,  making  a  total 
area  of   about   5000   square   miles.     From  time  to  time 


A   CATTLE  RANCH  229 

small  parcels'  of  land  have  been  sold,  and,  meanwhile, 
valuations  have  appreciated  from  fifty  cents  an  acre  to 
four  times  that  amount." 

The  larger  ranches  usually  have  about  50,000  acres 
each,  and  are  managed  by  a  foreman,  who  has  a  good 
house.  There  are  almost  no  trees  or  fuel  on  the  west- 
ern plains  of  Texas,  and  provisions  and  all  the  neces- 
saries of  the  ranch  must  be  hauled  hundreds  of  miles  in 
wagons. 

The  whole  range  belonging  to  the  ranch  is  fenced  in, 
so  that  the  cattle  do  not  wander  at  will  and  mix  with 
other  herds,  and  not  so  many  cowboys  are  needed  for  the 
care  of  the  stock.  The  headquarters  of  one  of  these  large 
ranches  is  completely  equipped  with  buildings  for  the 
foremen  and  cowboys,  with  blacksmith  and  wagon  shops, 
with  corrals  and  fenced  lots  for  the  care  of  the  cattle,  and 
sometimes  with  telephone  lines  connecting  different  sta- 
tions on  the  ranch. 

On  account  of  being  much  farther  south,  the  cattle  do 
not  suffer  much  from  the  cold  winters  and  blizzards.  But 
the  ranches  are  more  subject  to  drouths  and  short  grass. 

These  southern  ranges  are  also  largely  used  for  raising 
cows  and  young  calves,  on  account  of  the  milder  climate. 
But  when  the  young  steers  are  two  or  three  years  old, 
they  are  driven  by  thousands  to  the  northern  ranches, 
where  the  older  cattle  can  better  stand  the  winters. 

The  great  ranch  owners  of  Texas  have  also  paid  much 
attention  to  the  introduction  of  the  better  breeds  of  cattle. 
Thoroughbred  cattle  from  England,  the  Herefords  and 
Durhams,  and  the  Scotch  Angus  and  Galloways,  have  been 
imported  in  large  numbers,  and  at  great  expense,  to  take 
the  place  of  the  longhorn,  lean  Texas  breeds,  which  do 


230  TYPE  STUDIES 

not  fatten  so  well  nor  produce  so  good  meat.  In  these 
ways  cattle  raising  in  Texas  has  become  a  very  skilful 
and  well-regulated  business,  requiring  great  experience 
and  intelligence,  and  yielding  large  profits  to  those  who 
are  trained  and  skilful  managers.  One  man  who,  almost 
penniless,  went  into  the  Texas  cattle  business  at  the 
close  of  the  Civil  War,  by  hard  work  and  diligence  has 
acquired  a  great  ranch,  and  is  estimated  to  be  worth 
$5,000,000.  Nowadays  it  requires  a  large  capital,  both  for 
the  purchase  of  land  for  range  and  cattle  to  stock  it.  In 
New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  where  there  is  still  a  free, 
unfenced  range,  there  are  better  opportunities  for  men  of 
small  capital. 

About  one-half  of  Texas  and  nearly  all  of  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona  are  devoted  to  cattle  ranges,  and  about  six 
and  a  quarter  million  of  cattle  are  now  found  on  these 
ranches. 

The  lack  of  water  on  these  ranges  has  been  largely  sup- 
plied by  bored  wells,  which  are  sunk  all  over  a  large 
ranch  wherever  it  is  necessary  to  have  water  for  the 
cattle.  There  are  very  few  rivers  or  running  streams, 
but  the  rain  that  falls  during  the  summer  is  collected 
behind  dams  and  where  surface  lakes  can  be  found.  In 
the  region  of  the  staked  plain  there  are  many  small  salt 
lakes,  which  are  empty  in  dry  seasons,  but  filled  by  rains, 
and  they  supply  an  abundance  of  salt  for  the  cattle. 

There  are  a  number  of  dangers  from  which  the  Texas 
cattlemen  must  protect  their  herds  as  well  as  they  may. 
Among  diseases,  blackleg  attacks  young  calves  and  slays 
many.  A  noxious  weed  called  the  loco  poisons  the  cattle  as 
opium  poisons  people.  The  prairie-dogs  do  much  damage 
by  destroying  the  grass  and  by  digging  holes  in  which 


A   CATTLE  RANCH 


231 


cattle  and  horses  stumble  and  are  injured.  Rattle- 
snakes poison  many,  while  wolves  and  panthers  and  the 
mountain  lion  ravage  the  herds  and  do  much  damage. 
Against  all  these  enemies  the  cowboys  and  ranchers  wage 
unceasing  war. 

As  before  indicated,  the  region  of  country  devoted  to 
cattle  ranching  extends  from  Canada  to  southern  Texas, 
and  from  central  Kansas  and  Nebraska  into  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  including  a  large  share  of  Montana,  Wyoming, 
and  Colorado, 
nearly  the 
whole  of  New 
Mexico  and  Ari- 
zona, and  about 
half  of  Texas, 
Indian  Terri- 
tory, Kansas, 
Nebraska,  and 
the  Dakotas. 
This  entire  re- 
gion lies  in  the 
arid  belt,  and  does  not  receive  sufficient  rainfall  for  farm- 
ing, except  where  irrigation  can  be  carried  on  in  the 
valleys  of  the  rivers.  There  is,  however,  enough  rain- 
fall to  yield  the  thin  grasses  upon  which  the  great  ranch 
herds  are  grazed.  The  cause  of  this  arid  dryness  or  lack 
of  rainfall  is  the  presence  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Rocky 
Mountains,  which  catch  most  of  the  rains  and  snows 
brought  eastward  by  the  winds  from  the  Pacific,  and  this 
leaves  the  plains  to  the  east  of  the  Rockies  short  in  their 
rainfall. 

Most  of  the  beef  cattle  produced  upon  the  plains  are 


UNITED  STATES. 


Fig.  75. 


232  TYPE  STUDIES 

driven  to  the  railway  stations  and  shipped  to  Omaha, 
Kansas  City,  Chicago,  and  other  cities.  Here  are  great 
slaughter-houses,  where  the  animals  are  prepared  for  the 
market.  The  fresh  meat  thus  prepared  is  packed  in  ice 
and  shipped  in  refrigerator  cars  to  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  In  the  meat  markets  it  is  also  stored  in  large 
refrigerator  rooms  and  sold  out  to  customers  as  needed. 
Much  also  of  this  refrigerator  fresh  meat  is  shipped  from 
New  York  and  other  cities  to  England,  and  other  parts  of 
Europe.  Packed  in  ice  in  the  ship's  hold,  it  remains  fresh 
for  use  in  London,  Paris,  and  other  European  [cities. 
Many  thousands  of  live  cattle  are  also  shipped  in  long 
cattle  trains  across  the  continent  to  New  York,  where  they 
are  transferred  to  ships  and  carried  to  the  English  market. 
The  live  animals  must  be  well  fed,  watered,  and  cared  for 
while  on  rail  and  on  shipboard. 

While  we  speak  of  the  western  plains  as  the  cattle 
region  of  the  United  States,  many  more  cattle  are  raised 
and  marketed  from  the  farms  of  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas, 
and  the  agricultural  states  than  from  the  western  plains. 
The  corn-producing  belt  is  the  chief  cattle-raising  district, 
because  corn  is  the  best  feed  for  fattening  cattle.  In  1880 
New  York  state  had  2,300,000  more  cattle  than  were  found 
at  that  time  in  all  the  great  cattle  ranch  region  of  the 
west. 


^  =« 


PIKE'S   PEAK   AND   VICINITY 

Pike's  Peak  is  the  central  mountain  of  a  group  or  clus- 
ter of  mountains  which  together  constitute  a  spur  of  the 
main  chain  of  the  Rockies,  extending  eastward  into  the 
Great  Plain.  For  this  reason  Pike's  Peak  was  first  seen 
by  the  emigrant  trains  coming  from  the  east,  and  is  still 
one  of  the  prominent  landmarks  for  those  travelling  toward 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  surrounded  by  other  peaks 
and  ridges  which  rise  far  up  into  the  clear  sky  of  Colorado, 
but  all  are  dwarfed  by  the  greater  altitude  of  the  central 
peak.  It  is  about  seventy  miles  south  of  Denver,  and  its 
snow-covered  summit  can  be  clearly  seen  from  Denver 
nearly  every  day  in  the  year.  Except  on  cloudy  or  foggy 
days,  which  are  rare  in  Colorado,  it  can  be  seen  as  plainly 
as  if  it  were  only  ten  miles  away.  Fifty  miles  to  the 
south  of  it  is  Pueblo,  the  city  of  smelters  on  the  Arkansas, 
eastward  of  the  Royal  Gorge,  where  the  river  breaks 
through  the  mountain  ridge.  Pike's  Peak  stands,  there- 
fore, like  a  huge  sentinel,  with  the  wilderness  of  moun- 
tains and  park  lands  at  its  back  and  the  great  level  plains 
at  its  feet  to  the  east,  and  the  main  ridge  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  a  little  back,  but  flanking  it  on  the  north  and 
south. 

The  summit  of  Pike's  Peak  rises  14,140  feet  above  the 
sea-level,  but  the  Great  Plain  at  its  base  is  6000  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  the  peak  therefore  rises  only  about  8000 
feet  above  the  general  level  of  the  surrounding  country. 

233 


234  TYPE  STUDIES 

The  peak  was  discovered  and  explored  by  Colonel  Pike 
in  1806,  and  received  its  name  from  him.  When  gold 
was  discovered  in  Colorado  in  1858,  the  Pike's  Peak  gold 
region  became  famous,  though  no  gold  was  mined  in  its 
immediate  neighborhood. 

The  peak  itself  is  not  a  pointed  pinnacle  but  a  great 
rounded  swell  of  the  mountain  ridge,  steep  and  rocky  on 
some  of  its  edges,  but  with  long  slopes  and  spurs  reaching 
out  toward  the  neighboring  mountain  masses.  But  its 
sides  are  seamed  with  mighty  gorges  and  chasms,  glitter- 
ing with  snow  and  ice.  During  the  greater  part  of  the 
year  the  peak  is  plainly  distinguished  from  the  neighbor- 
ing cones  by  its  greater  height  and  its  white,  snow-covered 
top  and  sides.  "The  summit  is  nearly  level,  embrac- 
ing about  40  acres,  and  composed  of  angular  slabs  and 
blocks  of  coarse,  disintegrating  granite.  It  affords  one  of 
the  grandest  views  on  the  North  American  continent, 
extending  nearly  150  miles  in  all  directions."  But  it  is 
only  occasionally  that  the  tourist  can  get  such  a  clear 
view  from  its  summit.  But  to  survey  at  one  sweep  a 
country  larger  than  the  state  of  Illinois  is  worth  the 
trouble  of  a  mountain  climb.  Although  Colorado  has  a 
dry,  clear  atmosphere  and  rain  is  infrequent,  the  moun- 
tain peaks  are  often  wrapped  in  clouds.  The  higher 
ridges  and  peaks  draw  the  clouds  and  moisture,  though 
the  plains  at  their  feet  may  be  clothed  in  constant 
sunlight. 

But  Pike's  Peak  itself  is  only  the  most  prominent  among 
a  large  group  of  noteworthy  objects  in  this  neighborhood, 
among  which  are  Manitou  and  Colorado  Springs,  the 
Garden  of  the  Gods,  Cheyenne  Canon,  Monument  Park, 
Glen   Eyre,  the    Cave  of   the   Winds,  besides   the   foot- 


^      =«    c3 


pike's  peak  and  vicinity  235 

trail  and  the  railroad  to  the  top  of  Pike's  Peak  and  many 
other  mountain  resorts  and  scenic  wonders.  Many  thou- 
sands of  people  visit  the  Pike's  Peak  country  every  year, 
to  enjoy  the  great  number  of  nature's  grand  and  beautiful 
works. 

Just  east  of  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  on  a  level  plain,  six 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  stands  the  beautiful  city  of  Col- 
orado Springs,  with  its  shaded  streets,  fine  hotels,  and  great 
number  of  summer  homes.  Many  rich  people  have  built 
here  villas  and  costly  cottages  for  summer  residence. 
Electric  street  car  lines  reach  to  Manitou  and  Cheyenne 
Canon.  Six  lines  of  railway  run  into  Colorado  Springs, 
bringing  tourists  from  all  directions.  It  has  become,  there- 
fore, in  connection  with  the  various  mountain  resorts,  a 
great  centre  for  pleasure  and  health  seekers  from  all  parts 
of  the  United  States. 

About  six  miles  west  of  Colorado  Springs  is  Manitou, 
with  its  mineral  springs.  It  lies  in  a  deep,  narrow  valley 
at  the  foot  of  Pike's  Peak,  with  lofty  mountain  slopes  on 
either  side,  a  mountain  stream  passing  through  its  centre, 
and  the  snow-covered  top  of  the  peak  seen  through  a  notch 
in  the  lower  mountains.  Beside  the  mountain  stream,  in 
the  midst  of  the  town,  is  a  park  with  mineral  springs, 
where  thousands  of  tourists  drink  for  health  or  for  curi- 
osity. "  Manitou  lies  in  a  cup-like  glen,  surrounded  by 
mountains,  and  has  for  an  impressive  background,  high 
above  the  surrounding  summits,  the  impressive  majesty 
of  Pike's  Peak.  Its  regular  inhabitants  number  perhaps 
two  thousand  five  hundred  or  two  thousand.  There  are 
two  electric  light  plants,  and  three  miles  of  streets  lighted 
by  the  arc  light ;  a  beautiful  avenue  eighty  feet  wide  runs 
through  the  village.     On  either  side  of  this  avenue  on  the 


236  TYPE  STUDIES 

mountainside  may  be  seen  many  mansions,  villas,  and  cot- 
tages. In  the  very  centre  of  the  town  are  the  springs, 
enclosed  within  pleasure  grounds,  sparkling  and  bubbling 
from  their  hidden  reservoirs.  Hotels  there  are  in  profu- 
sion ;  boarding-houses,  cottages,  almost  any  kind  of  retreat 
or  home  for  a  traveller."  There  are  also  arcade  paths, 
secluded  nooks,  smooth  curving  driveways,  cool  and  shady 
parks,  hanging  rustic  bridges,  paths  up  the  mountain  sides, 
and  lookout  points  hundreds  of  feet  above  the  valley. 
More  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  people  are  said 
to  visit  this  spot  every  year.  Farther  up  the  canon,  toward 
the  foot  of  Pike's  Peak,  are  iron  springs  and  hotels  on  the 
mountain  side.  Instead  of  living  in  hotels  or  cottages, 
some  people  bring  tents  and  camp  out  along  the  lower 
slopes.  From  Manitou  the  old  trail  leads  twelve  miles  to 
the  summit  of  the  peak.  A  carriage  road  now  also  reaches 
the  top.  But  more  comfortable  still,  a  cog-wheel  railroad 
ascends  the  mountain  from  Manitou  and  puts  the  summit 
within  easy  reach  of  all. 

A  little  north  of  the  road  from  Colorado  Springs  to  Man- 
itou lies  that  region  of  curious  wonders  known  as  the 
Garden  of  the  Gods.  It  consists  of  steep,  towering  rocks 
rising  hundreds  of  feet  into  the  air,  some  red  like  terra- 
cotta, some  nearly  white,  with  here  and  there  curiously 
fantastic  shapes  like  bears,  or  elephants,  or  other  ani- 
mals. As  we  enter  the  Garden  of  the  Gods,  we  "pass  in 
between  massive  portals  of  rock,  of  brilliant  terra-cotta 
red,  and  enter  upon  a  plain,  miles  in  extent,  covered  in  all 
directions  with  magnificent  isolated  masses  of  the  same 
striking  color,  each  lifting  itself  against  the  wonderful  blue 
of  the  Colorado  sky  with  great  distinctness."  It  seems 
as  if  giants  had  been  at  some  rude  sport  and  had  piled  up 


pike's;  peak  and  vicinity  237 

these  immense  slabs  as  if  to  astonish  the  puny  race  of  men. 
"  Here  a  battlemented  wall  is  pierced  by  a  round  window  ; 
there  a  cluster  of  slender  spires  lift  themselves ;  beyond,  a 
leaning  tower  starts  upward  and  a  cube  of  rock  as  large  as 
a  dwelling-house  is  balanced  on  a  pivot-like  point  at  the 
base,  as  if  a  child's  strength  could  upset  it."  In  the  back- 
ground of  all  this  is  the  great  mountain  wall,  with  the 
white  summit  of  the  giant  peak  above. 

A  few  miles  to  the  south ,  but  easily  reached  by  carriage 
or  by  electric  car  from  Colorado  Springs,  is  Cheyenne 
Canon,  a  deep  gorge  in  the  foot-hills,  through  which  a 
mountain  stream  flows.  The  caiion  is  narrow  and  deep 
and  winding,  the  dark  rocks  towering  hundreds  of  feet 
perpendicularly  above  the  path  at  the  bottom.  After 
an  hour's  walk  or  ride  up  through  the  canon,  we  reach  the 
foot  of  the  seven  falls  or  the  successive  springs  of  this 
mountain  stream,  as  it  comes  leaping  down  the  mountain 
sides  to  reach  the  more  level  bottom  of  the  rocky  gorge. 
The  scenery  of  this  caiion  is  very  impressive. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  experiences  of  this  mountain 
region  is  an  old-fashioned  trip  on  foot  or  on  horseback 
from  Manitou  to  the  summit  of  Pike's  Peak.  We  secured 
saddle-horses,  and  set  out  in  the  morning,  about  eight 
o'clock,  for  the  twelve-mile  journey.  Passing  the  iron 
spring,  from  which  we  drank  strength  for  the  journey,  we 
entered  the  great  caiion  of  the  Pike's  Peak  trail,  and  fol- 
lowed it  for  six  miles  or  more.  It  is  a  continuation  of  the 
vale  in  which  Manitou  lies,  a  crooked,  winding  valley, 
rising  steadily  upward.  The  mountain  sides  which 
formed  its  borders  were  sometimes  covered  with  forests  of 
evergreen.  Close  to  the  mountain  torrent,  and  sometimes 
mingled  with  the  pines,  were  groves  of  cottonwoodo     The 


238  TYPE  STUDIES 

lower  valley  was  strewn  with  mighty  boulders,  as  tall  as 
the  tree-tops,  and  standing  alone,  as  if  some  giant  hand 
had  hurled  them  from  the  mountain  tops.  The  path  rose 
sometimes  many  feet  above  the  stream,  and  again  ran  close 
by  its  side,  giving  great  variety  of  beautiful  pictures  of  this 
winding  valley.  The  trees,  flowers,  and  grasses  were  all  in 
the  freshness  of  June.  But  when  we  reached  the  end  of  this 
caiion,  and  turned  on  our  track  to  climb  the  rugged  back- 
bone of  the  giant,  the  scenery  was  almost  entirely  changed. 
It  was  too  steep  to  go  straight  up  the  slope,  so  we  went  up 
long,  slanting  paths,  along  the  side  of  the  mountain,  round 
projecting  spurs,  and  at  times  zigzagging  our  way,  till  we 
were  beyond  timber-line,  eleven  thousand  feet  above  the 
sea.  From  here  on  the  journey  upward  was  a  dismal  one, 
so  far  as  the  mountain  on  which  we  were  climbing  was 
concerned.  It  was  simply  a  rough,  rocky  path  up  a  bleak 
and  barren  mountain  side  ;  but  w^e  began  now  to  get 
magnificent  views  of  mountain  ranges  and  peaks  in  the 
distance.  Gradually  the  surrounding  summits  began  to 
sink  beneath  our  feet,  and  we  could  see  distant  mountain 
chains  a  hundred  and  more  miles  away.  A  vast  wilderness 
of  mountain  scenery  opened  out  toward  the  west,  to  the 
south  and  north,  and  now  and  then  we  would  catch  a 
glimpse  of  the  level  plains  stretching  eastward.  It  grew 
cloudy  as  we  ascended,  and  our  view  of  the  mountains  was 
not  constant.  Before  reaching  the  summit,  a  passing 
cloud  enveloped  us  in  its  chilly  folds,  and  we  could  see 
nothing.  A  half-mile  or  more  before  sighting  the  top  we 
came  upon  a  wide  snowdrift,  and  leaving  our  horses  we 
scrambled  across  the  snow  and  up  a  rocky  path  for  some 
distance,  and  came  out  upon  the  broad  summit  of  the 
mountain,  strewn  with  such  big  granite  boulders  that  it  was 


pike's  peak  and  vicinity  239 

difficult  in  most  places  to  walk  about.  The  summit  house 
was  a  low  stone  structure,  with  heavy  walls  to  prevent  blow- 
ing down.  For  the  wind  frequently  blows  at  a  terrific  speed 
across  this  summit.  They  furnished  us  with  hot  coffee, 
and  we  spent  two  hours  on  the  top  before  starting  home 
again.  Fogs  or  clouds  were  hanging  about  the  brow  of 
the  mountain,  and  sometimes  drifted  across  its  top,  and 
our  views  from  the  summit  were  not  full  and  clear,  but  we 
could  catch  occasional  views  of  Manitou,  Colorado  Springs, 
and  the  eastern  plains,  and  of  the  mighty  wilderness  of 
mountains  on  the  other  side.  We  also  walked  about  the 
summit,  and  tried  to  peer  down  the  great  gorges  which 
seam  the  mountain  on  two  sides. 

The  rarefied  air  of  the  mountain  top  gave  some  of  us  a 
headache,  and  we  were  not  sorry  to  start  home  again.  At 
this  time  the  government  kept  up  a  signal  station  at  the 
top.  Two  men  remained  on  the  peak,  even  in  winter,  and 
telegraphed  daily  the  weather  observations  to  Colorado 
Springs.  In  winter  snow  and  ice  were  piled  up  many  feet 
deep  about  the  summit  house,  and  they  could  not  venture 
out  for  three  months  or  more.  As  we  descended  upon  our 
homeward  journey,  a  heavy  storm  of  rain  came  up  and 
gave  us  such  a  thorough  soaking  for  two  hours  that  we 
were  fully  convinced  that  the  rains  in  Colorado  love  the 
mountain  slopes.  About  six  o'clock  in  the  evening  we 
rode  into  Manitou,  stiff,  hungry,  and  drenched,  and  almost 
completely  exhausted  after  twenty-four  miles  of  moun- 
taineering. 

A  trip  by  rail  would  be  doubtless  much  easier  and  more 
comfortable,  but  a  trip  on  foot  or  on  horseback  gives  the 
best  opportunities  for  sight-seeing,  and  for  those  who  wish 
to  catch  the  spirit  of  the    mountains   and  drink  in  its 


240  TYPE  STUDIES 

rugged  strength  and  health,  a  foot  journey  is  the  oppor- 
tunity. 

Many  people  spend  ^  month  or  two  among  these  moun- 
tains, climbing  the  ridges  and  mountain  paths,  drinking 
of  the  mineral  springs,  taking  in  the  pure  and  bracing  air 
of  this  elevated  region,  and  enjoying  the  immense  variety 
and  grandeur  of  mountain  scenery  and  life.  There  are 
very  many  other  interesting  places,  deserving  a  full  de- 
scription, such  as  the  Cave  of  the  Winds,  with  its  labyrinth 
of  caverns  and  beautiful  grottos.  We  entered  it  from  a 
mountain  side  two  or  three  hundred  feet  above  the  bottom 
of  the  valley.  Monument  Park,  also,  with  its  host  of 
sculptured  forms  in  rock  as  nature  has  chiselled  them  out. 
Glen  Eyre,  near  the  Garden  of  the  Gods,  with  its  chim- 
neyed rocks  and  grand  mountain  gorge,  are  much  visited. 
But  there  is  no  limit  to  the  attractions  of  such  a  wonder- 
land of  mountains  and  valleys.  The  Colorado  Midland 
Railroad  passes  up  through  the  valley  beyond  Manitou, 
and  at  Green  Mountain  Falls,  nine  miles  from  Manitou,  is 
a  beautiful  summer  home,  eight  thousand  feet  above  the 
sea,  with  hotels,  springs,  and  a  deep  valley  set  in  sur- 
rounding mountains  to  protect  it  from  the  storms. 


IRRIGATION  AND  THE  BIG  DITCH  AT  DENVER 

The  city  of  Denver  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  south  fork 
of  the  Platte  River  about  twenty-two  miles  northeast  of 
the  point  at  which  the  river  emerges  from  the  foot-hills 
and  starts  northeastward  across  the  plains  to  join  the 
north  fork  of  the  Platte  and  move  eastward  to  the 
Missouri.  In  1880  the  big  irrigating  ditch  was  dug 
so  as  to  draw  its  waters  from  the  south  fork  of  the 
Platte  and  distribute  them  along  the  gentle  slope  south- 
east of  the  river.  About  forty  miles  south  of  Denver 
is  a  plateau  extending  out  from  the  mountains  into 
the  plains  and  forming  a  divide  or  watershed  between 
the  Arkansas  on  the  south  and  the  Platte  on  the  north. 
For  many  miles,  therefore,  the  plains  slope  gently  from 
the  divide  toward  the  northwest  down  to  the  south  fork 
of  the  Platte.  This  gently  sloping  plain  is  a  part  of  the 
region  known  as  "the  Plains,"  lying  just  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  a  dry,  treeless  land  with  a  scanty 
grass  and  cactus  growth.  The  soil  is  sandy  but  rich,  and 
if  well  supplied  with  water,  produces  excellent  crops  of 
grain,  grass,  and  vegetables.  But  the  rainfall  for  the 
whole  year  is  very  light  and  cannot  be  depended  upon  for 
crops,  while  even  the  thin  buffalo  grass  will  feed  only  a, 
small  part  of  the  stock  which  a  good  meadow  of  equal  area 
does.  The  early  settlers  in  Colorado  were  either  miners 
or  grazers  and  stockmen.  But  as  cities  and  towns  sprung 
up  along  the  mountains,  agriculture  along  the  river  val- 
B  241 


242  TYPE  STUDIES 

leys  began  to  attract  attention,  and  the  water  was  drawn 
out  from  the  rivers  and  streams  into  ditches  to  irrigate 
the  growing  crops.  The  first  ditches  were  small  and  were 
taken  out  by  a  few  farmers  Whose  land  lay  in  the  bottoms 
and  near  the  rivers.  Some  ten  years  earlier  a  larger 
ditch,  called  the  City  Ditch,  was  taken  from  the  river  at 
Littleton,  ten  miles  south  of  Denver,  and  carried  along 
the  slope  back  from  the  river  toward  Denver.  It  passed 
just  east  of  the  city  and  along  the  plain  above,  so  that  its 
water  was  drawn  off  not  only  for  farms,  but  to  run  through 
the  streets  of  Denver  to  water  gardens  and  the  cotton- 
wood  and  maple  and  other  trees  which  shaded  the  streets 
of  the  city. 

With  the  great  increase  in  population  at  Denver  and  all 
along  the  mountains,  in  mining  towns,  the  demand  for 
agricultural  products  became  greater,  and  as  they  had  to 
be  shipped  from  Kansas  or  Utah,  three  or  four  hundred 
miles,  the  impulse  became  strong  to  bring  much  larger 
territories  under  the  irrigating  canals.  A  wealthy  com- 
pany therefore  secured  the  privilege  of  constructing  a 
great  irrigating  ditch  so  as  to  bring  in  a  large  part  of 
the  southeast  slope  of  the  Platte  River  under  water,  and 
thus  open  up  a  strip  of  irrigation  many  miles  long  and 
from  two  to  twenty  miles  wide. 

In  order  to  get  the  water  at  a  high  level  and  thus  carry 
it  as  far  back  upon  the  plains  as  possible,  a  dam  was  built 
in  the  river  three  or  four  miles  up  the  caiion,  which  the 
river  has  cut  through  the  mountains  before  coming  out  into 
the  plain.  A  heavy  framework  of  timbers  was  built  across 
the  stream  and  boarded  up  so  as  to  make  a  solid  dam,  and 
from  it  boards  were  sloped  down  on  the  lower  side  over 
which  the  excess  of  water  flowed.     The   big   ditch  was 


Soa!e 

10 


Fig.  78. 


A.  A.  A.  —  Main  chain  of  the 

Rocky  Mountains. 

B.  B.  B.  — Foot-hills. 

C.  C.  C.  —  South  Fork  of  the 

Platte. 

D.  —  Denver. 

E.  —  The  dam. 


F.F.F.  — The  ditch. 

G.  G.  G.  — Cherry  Creek. 

H.H.H.  — Watershed. 

I.  I.  —  Clear  creek. 

K.  — Georgetown. 

P.— Pike's  Peak. 

S.  S.  — South  Park. 


IBBIGATION  AND   THE  BIG  DITCH  AT  DENVEB      243 

taken  out  of  the  river  from  the  side  of  the  dam  much  as  a 
mill-race  is  taken  from  a  stream.  A  way  was  made  for 
this  artificial  canal  along  the  canon  three  or  four  miles  till 
the  mouth  was  reached.  But  the  caiion  is  narrow  in  places 
and  crooked,  and  lined  with  mountains  from  five  hundred 
to  one  thousand  feet  high.  In  one  place  it  was  necessary 
to  cut  a  tunnel  out  of  solid  rock  five  hundred  feet  through 
a  spur  of  a  mountain,  through  which  the  canal  flows.  In 
several  places  where  the  canon  is  narrow  and  the  sides 
steep,  with  rocky  cliffs,  a  great  wooden  trough  was  built 
along  the  side  of  the  mountain  and  supported  by  heavy 
braces,  and  the  water  carried  through  this.  As  the  de- 
scent of  the  river  is  much  more  rapid  than  that  of  the 
canal,  at  the  point  where  the  river  and  canal  emerge 
from  the  mountain,  the  canal  is  twenty  or  more  feet  higher 
than  the  current  of  the  river.  At  this  point  the  canal  di- 
verges from  the  river,  and  is  carried  back  as  far  as  its  eleva- 
tion, and  a  gentle  slope  so  as  to  produce  a  current,  will  allow. 
After  the  canal  is  brought  out  of  the  foot-hills  and  away 
from  rough  hilly  country  near  them  to  the  more  regular 
slope  of  the  plain,  we  may  get  a  more  accurate  notion  of  its 
size.  The  digging  of  this  great  ditch  required  the  work  of 
hundreds  of  men  with  horses,  scrapers,  and  other  machines. 
The  canal  is  forty  feet  wide  at  the  bottom  and  seven  feet 
deep  when  the  water  is  turned  on.  The  dirt  as  it  was 
taken  out  was  thrown  mostly  upon  the  lower  side  toward 
the  river,  so  as  to  form  an  embankment  on  that  side.  In 
many  places  the  dirt  was  piled  up  fifteen  or  twenty  feet 
high,  and  the  cuts  resembled  a  great  railroad  cut,  only 
wider.  The  work  of  excavation  was  carried  on  for  months 
along  this  line  with  many  men  who  lived  in  tents  and  with 
much  expenditure  of  capital. 


244  TYPE  STUDIES 

A  number  of  ravines  and  gullies  had  to  be  crossed  as 
the  ditch  was  extended.  From  the  high  divide  streams  of 
water  come  rushing  down  to  the  Platte  in  the  rainy  season. 
During  most  of  the  summer  these  gulches  are  dry.  Cherry 
Creek,  which  enters  the  Platte  at  Denver,  is  a  large  stream 
in  the  rainy  season  but  nearly  dry  during  the  summer. 
Its  valley  is  half  a  mile  wide  and  twelve  to  twenty  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  plain.  The  big  ditch  had  to  be 
carried  across  all  these  gullies  and  valleys.  Generally  the 
ditch  is  brought  to  the  edge  of  the  valley  and  carried  over 
a  large  wooden  trough  to  the  other  side.  This  trough  or 
flume  must  be  deep  and  wide  enough  to  carry  the  full 
stream  of  water.  It  is  built  upon  piles  and  wooden  trestles 
like  a  railroad  bridge.  The  seams  and  cracks  between 
the  boards  are  calked  up  so  as  to  cause  as  little  leakage  as 
possible. 

In  some  places  dams  are  built  across  the  valleys  and  the 
water  run  in  so  as  to  form  a  large  lake  or  reservoir  extend- 
ing some  distance  back  up  the  valley.  Sometimes  the 
water  is  run  on  to  tracts  of  low  level  land  and  a  bank 
extended  along  the  lower  side,  forming  a  shallow  lake. 
These  reservoirs  are  filled  with  water  during  the  rainy 
season  when  the  showers  fall  in  April  and  the  snows  melt 
on  the  mountains.  At  this  season  the  rivers  are  usually 
flooded  for  a  short  period  and  an  immense  amount  of  water 
escapes  down  the  river  unless  it  is  stored  up  in  the  reser- 
voirs. If  stored  up,  it  will  prove  very  valuable  later  dur- 
ing the  long,  dry  summer,  when  there  are  few  or  no  rains. 
The  mountains  are  the  original  reservoirs  of  moisture. 
Much  more  snow  and  rain  fall  in  the  mountains  than 
on  the  plains.  The  cold  mountain  sides  bring  out  the 
moisture,  and  it  is  condensed  into  rain  and  snow.      The 


IRRIGATION  AND   THE  BIG   DITCH  AT  DENVER      24:5 

mountain  peaks  have  frequent  rain-storms  and  snows 
when  no  moisture  falls  upon  the  plains.  The  forests  and 
other  vegetation  in  the  mountains  also  help  to  hold  the 
snow  and  moisture.  But  in  spite  of  all  this,  the  rivers  do 
not  furnish  enough  water  to  supply  all  the  ditches  taken 
from  the  river.  The  best  way  to  increase  the  water  sup- 
ply so  as  to  be  able  to  irrigate  large  tracts  of  country  is  to 
collect  in  reservoirs  the  waters  which  are  so  abundant  at 
the  time  of  the  spring  freshets. 

When  the  big  ditch  has  been  liberally  supplied  with 
water,  it  can  be  drawn  off  through  wooden  boxings  to 
irrigate  the  separate  fields.  Usually  a  larger  boxing  lets 
out  enough  water  to  form  quite  a  good-sized  ditch,  from 
two  to  six  feet  across.  This  may  skirt  the  edges  of  a 
number  of  farms,  and  from  it  the  water  is  turned  off  in 
smaller  channels  still  to  the  separate  farms  and  fields. 
The  boxing  through  which  the  water  escapes  from  the 
main  ditch  passes  under  the  embankment  on  the  lower 
side.  At  one  end  it  is  below  the  level  of  the  w^ater  in  the 
ditch;  at  the  otlier  end  is  an  upright  slide  or  board,  which 
by  being  lifted  lets  out  the  water,  or  by  dropping  and 
throwing  loose  dirt  into  the  boxing  stops  the  flow  of 
water.  Regular  officers,  or  water  inspectors,  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  ditch  company  to  pass  along  the  ditches 
daily  and  regulate  the  amount  of  water  sent  out  to  the  dif- 
ferent farms ;  to  keep  watch  of  the  ditch,  reservoirs,  banks, 
and  flumes  and  to  see  that  all  are  kept  in  good  repair. 
Sometimes,  in  case  of  rains  and  freshets,  there  is  danger 
that  the  ditch  may  fill  up  and  overrun  its  banks,  thus 
wasting  the  water  and  ruining  the  crops.  In  such  cases 
the  water  is  often  turned  out  at  the  flumes  and  allowed  to 
run  down  the  valleys  to  the  Platte. 


246  TYPE  STUDIES 

The  fields  are  irrigated  in  different  ways.  A  wheat- 
field  or  meadow  is  sometimes  flooded,  that  is,  the  water 
turned  on  till  the  whole  area  has  been  overflowed  and 
soaked.  In  a  corn-field  the  water  often  runs  down  in  a 
small  stream  between  each  two  rows  and  allowed  to  soak 
into  the  ground  till  all  is  moistened.  When  sufficient 
moisture  is  secured,  the  mouth  of  the  ditch  is  closed  up 
with  a  shovel  of  dirt,  and  for  a  week  or  two,  perhaps,  the 
ground  may  not  be  flooded  again.  Most  of  the  land  slopes 
so  regularly  and  evenly  toward  the  river  that  it  is  possible 
to  irrigate  it  all  and  not  allow  the  soil  to  wash  down. 

The  ditch  company  usually  sells  the  water  to  the  farm- 
ers by  the  inch,  the  amount  of  water  passing  through  a 
hole  an  inch  square  being  sufficient  to  irrigate  an  acre. 
The  cost  of  water  is  from  $1.50  to  $2.50  an  inch.  If  the 
ditch  company  owns  the  land  it  is  leased  at  a  rental  for 
water  rights.  The  ditch  company,  having  spent  large 
sums  of  money  in  constructing  the  ditch,  must  get  its 
reward  in  the  form  of  water  rent  from  the  farmers  whom 
it  supplies. 

The  effect  of  bringing  a  district  of  country  under  irri- 
gation is  very  striking.  Fields  of  grain,  meadows  of 
alfalfa,  and  other  grasses,  corn,  and  vegetables,  grow  in 
abundance.  The  country  that  once  had  much  the  appear- 
ance of  a  desert  is  clothed  with  varieties  of  green.  Shade 
trees  and  orchards  are  planted  and  thrive,  houses  and 
barns  built,  and  the  whole  country  takes  on  much  of  the 
appearance  of  a  blooming  Illinois  prairie  in  springtime. 
The  whole  ground  becomes  so  saturated  with  moisture 
that  wells  are  dug  and  supply  abundance  of  water  so  long 
as  the  water  in  the  ditch  remains.  In  the  fall  and  winter 
the  ditches  are  usually  allowed  to  run  dry,  as  the  water  is 


i 


IRRIGATION  AND    THE  BIG   DITCH  AT  DENVER      247 

not  needed.  Land  \yiTig  below  the  level  of  the  ditch 
becomes  worth  $40  or  $50  per  acre,  while  just  as  good 
land  above  the  level  of  the  ditch  and  perhaps  only  a 
few  rods  away  is  not  worth  more  than  $5  or  $6  an  acre 
for  grazing  purposes.  Of  course  roads  are  opened  and 
bridges  across  the  ravines  are  built,  and  the  markets 
of  Denver  and  other  towns  supplied  with  abundance  of 
vegetables,  small  fruit,  and  grain.  It  is  claimed  by  those 
who  farm  by  irrigation  that  it  is  a  more  reliable  and  satis- 
factory method  than  farming  in  Illinois  or  Iowa,  where 
dependence  must  be  placed  upon  the  natural  rainfall. 
Sometimes  the  rains  do  not  come ;  sometimes  they  are  too 
abundant  and  they  are  not  sufficiently  regular ;  but  in  a 
country  cultivated  by  irrigation  the  water  can  be  turned 
on  when  needed  and  in  the  quantity  desired.  The  abun- 
dant sunshine  also  helps  to  ripen  the  fruits  better,  gives 
them  a  better  color  and  flavor.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
can  be  said  that  only  a  small  part  of  the  western  coun- 
try can  ever  be  irrigated,  as  there  are  not  sufficient  rivers 
nor  supplies  of  water  for  the  needs. 

There  is  also  constant  conflict  as  to  water  rights.  The 
old  ditches  first  taken  out  have  the  prior  claim  upon  the 
water.  According  to  the  law  they  have  the  first  claim. 
The  big  ditch  at  Denver,  though  taken  out  much  higher 
up  the  river,  is  not  allowed  to  take  so  much  water  as  to 
leave  the  old  ditches  farther  down  the  stream  without  sup- 
plies. But  it  is  very  difficult  to  regulate  such  a  thing  as 
flowing  water  and  do  justice  to  all  parties.  The  state 
legislature  at  Denver,  to  avoid  conflict,  makes  laws  to 
regulate  the  construction  and  operation  of  ditches,  and 
provides  for  water  commissioners  who  constantly  supervise 
them. 


248 


TYPE  STUDIES 


The  northeast  slope  of  the  Platte  River  is  supplied  with 
water  in  a  different  way.  Quite  a  number  of  small 
streams  come  down  out  of  the  mountains  and  foot-hills 
and  move  eastward  across  the  slope  to  join  the  Platte. 
Between  the  river  and  the  mountains  at  Denver,  this  rich 
level  or  rolling  plain  is  about  ten  miles  wide,  and  is  a  gar- 
den of  beauty  and  abundance.  These  small  mountain 
streams  are  dammed  up  at  favorable  points  so  as  to  form 


Fig.  79. 
Reservoir,  with  spillway  near  the  rocks  and  flume  in  the  centre. 

ponds  or  lakes;  from  one  of  these  reservoirs  the  water  can 
be  carried  in  small  ditches  to  the  level  fields  a  little  lower 
down  on  both  sides  of  the  valley.  As  one  stands  on  the 
mountain,  fifteen  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
plain,  he  can  count  scores  of  these  small  artificial  lakes 
which  preserve  the  abundance  of  water  of  the  spring  season 
for  the  use  of  the  farmers  in  summer  time. 

It  is  a  matter  of  much  importance  to  the  farmers  along 
the  river  valleys  that  the  forests  in  the  mountain  slopes  be 


IRRIGATION  AND    THE  BIG  DITCH  AT  DENVER      249 


preserved  so  that  the  snows  and  rains  may  be  kept  in  re- 
serve along  these  slopes.  All  through  the  mountains  the 
woodsmen  and  the  sawmills  have  been  at  work  cutting 
out  the  best  pine  timber  for  use  in  building.  It  is  quite 
important  that  the  forests  be  preserved,  and  the  springs 
in  the  mountains  be  kept  flowing.  It  is  also  well  to  en- 
courage the  grasses  and  grass  lands  upon  the  mountain 
slopes  and  in  the 
valleys,  as  they,  too, 
help  to  keep  the 
mountains  a  perma- 
nent reservoir  of  the 
rains  and  snows. 

An  examination  of 
a  large  map  will  show 
how  many  streams 
there  are  flowing 
eastward  from  the 
Rocky  Mountains 
across  the  plains  that 
may  be  found  useful 
for  the  purposes  of 
irrigation.  Even  such  a  large  stream  as  the  Arkansas  has 
been  used  very  extensively  for  the  purpose  of  supplying 
large  irrigating  ditches.  The  upper  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande 
is  a  beautiful  and  fruitful  region,  made  so  by  irrigation. 

It  may  be  well  also  to  study  the  map,  not  only  locating 
the  principal  rivers  and  their  tributaries  flowing  down  to 
the  plains,  but  notice  also  the  line  in  Central  Kansas  and 
Nebraska  which  separates  the  arid  region  of  the  west  from 
the  prairies  and  rainy  country  to  the  east,  where  crops 
may  be  raised  without  artificial  means. 


Fig.  80. 

Water  for  irrigation  is  often  conducted  around 
the  mountain  sides  in  a  flume. 


250 


TYPE  STUDIES 


A  line  drawn  through  central  Kansas  and  Nebraska 
from  north  to  south  on  the  100th  meridian  would  fairly 
separate  the  arid  region  of  the  west  from  the  rainy  re- 
gions of  the  east. 

It  may  be  noticed  briefly  here,  also,  that  most  of  the 
western  states  and  territories  must  depend  in  the  future 
for  their  agricultural  development  upon  irrigation.     The 


Fig.  81. 

An  irrigation  ditch  that  supplies  water  to  some  of  the  orange  groves  of  south- 
ern California. 

fruitful  valleys  of  Utah  and  California  and  other  western 
states,  depend  upon  this  means  of  supplying  moisture  to 
the  fields. 

In  some  of  the  states,  like  Dakota  and  Texas,  resort  has 
been  had  to  artesian  wells,  and  this  method  may  fairly  be 
compared  with  the  other  means  of  supplying  water  to  the 
growing  crop. 

The  study  of  irrigation  as  given  in  the  preceding  sketch, 
not  only  gives  an  insiglit  into  the  methods  of  agriculture 
in  nearly  half  of  our  own  domain,  but  it  will  be  found' 
very  helpful  in  explaining  similar  conditions  and  agricul- 


IRRIGATION  AND    THE  BIG   DITCH  AT  DENVER      251 

ture  in  Africa,  in  Mexico,  and  in  Central  and  Western 
Asia,  in  India,  and  even  in  European  lands  where  the  water 


Fig.  82. 

Salt  Lake  and  Jordan  Canal,  Utah,  with  headgate  to  regulate  the  flow  of 
water.  Willows  on  the  bank  of  the  canal ;  cottonwood  trees  farther  back. 
The  great  bar  at  the  point  of  the  mountain  in  the  background. 

from  rivers  is  and  has  been  so  much  used  in  aiding  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil. 


THE  GREAT  BASIN  OF  UTAH  AND  NEVADA 


Between  the  Wasatch  Mountains  on  the  east  and  the 
Sierra  Nevada  of  California  on  the  west  lies  a  region  of 


0     100  200   300  400  5 


Fig.  83. 

A  map  to  show  the  rainfall  of  the  United  States  in  inches  ;  that  is,  the  num- 
ber of  inches  of  water  that  would  collect  all  over  the  surface  in  a  year  if 
all  the  rain  remained  where  it  fell. 

desert  wastes,  salt  lakes,  and  plateaus  cut  up  by  short  moun- 
tain chains,  whose  drainage  has  no  outlet  to  the  sea.  It  is 
a  broken  plateau  between  four  thousand  and  five  thousand 
feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  is  a  little  larger  than  France. 
On  the  south  of  this  region  lies  the  plateau  of  the 
Colorado  River  with  its  deep  caiions,  separated  by  only  a 

252 


THE  GREAT  BASIN  OF  UTAH  AND  NEVADA      253 

slight  watershed  from  the  Great  Basin.  On  the  north  also 
the  watershed  between  the  Snake  River  and  the  Great 
Basin  is  irregular  and  difficult  to  determine. 

This  whole  region  is  arid,  having  only  a  slight  rainfall, 
owing  to  the  high  Sierra  Nevada  range,  which  intercepts 
the  wet  winds  coming  from  the  Pacific  and  causes  their 
moisture  to  fall  in  rains  and  snows  upon  the  western 
mountains.  As  these  winds  pass  over  to  the  plateau,  they 
are  mostly  dry. 

On  the  east,  the  great  Rocky  Mountain  chain  likewise 
takes  most  of  the  moisture  from  the  winds  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  and  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

In  addition  to  these  causes  the  plateau  in  summer  time 
is  hot,  and  the  ascending  column  of  hot  air  dissipates  what 
clouds  would  be  formed  over  the  plateau.  This  is  especially 
true  in  the  southern  part  of  the  plateau  and  in  the  Colorado 
basin,  so  that  refreshing  showers  are  also  cut  off  in  that 
direction. 

Such  rains  as  do  fall  within  the  basin  are  mostly  along 
the  ridges  of  the  higher  mountain  chains,  such  as  the 
Wasatch  and  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which 
also  get  a  part  of  the  snows  and  rains  from  the  Pacific. 
From  these  mountain  slopes  descend  the  streams  which 
supply  the  salt  lakes  and  sinks  with  water  ;  e.g.  Bear 
River  and  the  Jordan,  flowing  into  Salt  Lake  ;  the  Truckee 
River,  flowing  into  Pyramid  and  Winnemucca  lakes,  near 
the  Sierra  Nevada  ;  and  the  Humboldt,  flowing  into  Hum- 
boldt and  Carson  sinks  ;  also  the  Sevier   River  and  Lake. 

Most  of  the  lower  mountain  ridges  crossing  this  plateau 
extend  from  north  to  south  and  are  barren,  rising  pre- 
cipitously in  many  places  out  of  the  plateau.  In  a  few 
places    they    are    cut  through  by  rivers  forming  gorges 


254  TYPE  STUDIES 

through  which  the  railroads  pass  from  east  to  west,  as,  for 
example,  along  the  Bear  and  Humboldt  rivers. 

Several  parts  of  this  plateau  are  distinctly  marked 
deserts,  as  is  the  large  tract  just  west  and  southwest  of 
Salt  Lake,  which  was  once  a  part  of  Salt  Lake  itself,  when 
the  water  was  more  abundant  and  extended  ;  also  the 
Mohave  Desert,  with  its  dreary  valley,  partly  below  sea- 
level  (called  Death  Valley),  in  southeastern    California. 


Fig.  84. 

The  desert  of  Utah,  near  Great  Salt  Lake,  where  there  is  no  fresh  water, 
where  it  rarely  rains,  and  where  there  is  very  little  vegetation. 

In  the  early  caravan  days  to  California  the  passage  of  the 
pioneers  across  the  deserts  of  Utah  was  marked  by  great 
sufferings  and  losses. 

Agriculture  is  possible  only  where  the  rivers  can  be 
used  as  irrigating  streams,  which  is  especially  the  case 
with  those  small  rivers  flowing  into  the  Great  Salt  Lake. 
Irrigation,  however,  takes  up  so  much  of  the  river  waters 
that  the  lakes  receive  a  smaller  part  and  are  reduced  in 
size.  In  the  valleys  where  irrigating  ditches  can  be  used 
the  soil  is  productive.  Such  valleys  at  the  western  foot  of 
the  Wasatch  Mountains  are  very  fruitful,  w^ith  farms  and 


i 


THE  GREAT  BASIN   OF  UTAH  AND  NEVADA      255 

gardens  and  many  prosperous  villages  and  towns.  The 
streams  which  flow  westward  from  the  Wasatch  Mountains 
have  cut  deep,  narrow  canons,  like  those  of  the  American 
Fork  and  Big  Cottonwood,  having  walls  four  thousand 
feet  high  and  presenting  grand  scenery.  Breaking  over 
ledges  and  rocks,  the  falls  and  rapids  of  these  streams 
supply  also  a  great  water-power. 

In  passing  from  the  deserts  southwest  of  Salt  Lake,  to 
the  top  of  the  Wasatch  Mountains,  a  remarkable  variety 
of  scenery  and  vegetation  is  presented.  The  great  desert 
itself,  one  hundred  miles  long  and  forty  miles  wide,  is  an 
absolute  waste,  dreary  and  desolate.  East  of  this  the 
plains  are  covered  with  sagebrush,  cacti,  rabbit  bush, 
mesquit,  and  the  thin  desert  grass.  Out  of  this  plain  rise 
steep,  narrow  mountain  ridges,  sometimes  a  mile  high. 

"  Throughout  the  lower  slopes,  low  hills  and  table-lands 
and  below  the  oak  zone,  but  not  in  the  valleys,  Utah  is 
everywhere  covered  by  large  areas  of  juniper,  called  cedar, 
and  also  by  pinon.  The  pihon  is  a  small  pine  tree,  seldom 
reaching  thirty  feet  in  height,  which  bears  a  large  seed 
that  has  been  the  main  support  of  the  Indians  for  ages. 
The  juniper  is  also  a  scraggly  bush  or  small  tree  of  about 
the  same  size.  Both  of  these  are  evergreens,  and  produce 
large  quantities  of  resin,  and  are  everywhere  used  for 
posts  and  fuel."^ 

Above  this  the  mountain  sides  are  covered  with  scrub 
oak,  aspen,  and  various  evergreen  trees  ;  sometimes  in  large 
forests,  supplying  excellent  lumber,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
yellow  pine,  spruce,  and  red  pine.  The  lumber-producing 
forests  are  confined  mostly  to  high  ridges  and  plateaus. 

From  the  top  of  the  Wasatch  peaks  one  may  see  spread 

^  Tarr  and  McMurry's  Geography,  Supplementary  Volume,  Utah. 


256 


TYPE  STUDIES 


out  before  him,  as  on  a  map,  the  valleys,  cities,  and  towns 
of  Utah.  The  air  is  so  clear  that  one  may  see  more  than 
a  hundred  miles,  and  distant  objects  seem  to  draw  near 
and  stand  out  clearly.  From  these  summits  the  eastern 
edge  of  the  Great  Basin  can  be  clearly  surveyed  for 
two  hundred  miles  at  a  single  view. 

In  the  early  springtime  the  lower  plains  are  covered 
with  a  profusion  of  brilliant  flowers,  brought  into  life  by 


../'l'.^ 


^K^^v-iSS., 


Bk;«^-|r  s. 


LlW 


Fig.  85. 
Salt  Lake  City  and  the  Wasatch  Range. 

the  early  spring  rains.  But  they  quickly  disappear,  and 
only  the  ripened  seeds  remain  in  the  soil  awaiting  another 
season  of  showers. 

"  Since  but  little  of  Utah  is  capable  of  irrigation  because 
of  the  lack  of  water,  the  land  is  uncultivated  by  farmers, 
and  would  be  useless  were  it  not  for  the  scanty  vegetation 
which  grows  on  the  deserts  and  the  abundant  grass  which 
once  covered  the  mountains.  The  people  early  began  rais- 
ing cattle,  horses,  mules,  and  sheep,  till  now  the  animals  are 


THE  GREAT  BASIN  OF  UTAH  AND  NEVADA      257 

counted  by  the  millions.  The  grass  growing  on  the 
deserts  has  the  peculiarity  of  drying  up  and  still  retaining 
its  nourishment,  so  the  stock  spread  out  over  the  deserts 
and  live  upon  this  grass.  In  addition  there  are  certain 
shrubs  which  furnish  the  greater  part  of  the  sustenance 
for  stock.  The  chief  of  these  is  the  winter  fat,  a  low  shrub 
which  is  eaten  close  to  the  ground,  and  is  very  nourishing 
because  of  the  abundant  seed  which  it  produces,  and  which 
remains  on  the  stems  during  the  winter.  There  are  two 
other  shrubs  upon  which  the  sheep  depend  besides  the 
winter  fat.  One  of  them  is  the  shad-scale,  a  thorny  shrub 
belonging  to  the  beet  family,  and  the  other  the  gray,  but 
evergreen,  sagebrush.  When  the  snows  begin  to  melt  off 
the  deserts,  so  that  the  stock  can  no  longer  secure  water 
to  drink,  the  animals  drift  back  to  the  mountains  and 
follow  the  retreating  snow,  till  in  the  height  of  summer 
most  of  the  animals  are  found  grazing  on  the  highest 
mountains.  The  number  of  cattle  raised  is  400,000  ; 
sheep,  3,800,000  ;  total  sheep  owned  in  Utah,  6,000,000."  i 

Great  Salt  Lake,  in  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the 
Great  Basin,  has  a  history  which  is  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting chapters  in  the  geography  of  North  America.  The 
lake  itself,  whose  surface  is  about  4205  feet  above  sea- 
level  is  70  miles  long  and  has  an  average  width  of  some 
30  miles  and  an  area  of  1700  square  miles.  Its  average 
depth  is  12  feet.  Travellers  in  crossing  the  mountains, 
when  first  coming  in  sight  of  this  wide-spreading  lake, 
have  expressed  their  surprise  at  the  grand  view  of  this 
extensive  inland  sea,  surrounded  by  high  mountains. 

But  geologists  and  geographical  explorers,  by  studying 
the  plains  and  mountain  sides  which  surround  this  lake, 

1  Tarr  and  McMurry's  Geography,  Supplementary  Yolume,  Utah. 


258  TYPE  STUDIES 

have  found  out  that  it  was  once  more  than  ten  times  as 
large  as  now,  that  is,  18,000  square  miles  in  extent,  that  it 
was  1200  feet  deep  in  places,  and  instead  of  being  so 
intensely  salt  as  now,  was  a  fresh-water  lake,  abounding 
in  salmon,  whitefish,  trout,  and  other  fresh-water  fish, 
and  that  its  outlet  was  a  broad,   deep  stream  at  what  is 


Fig.  86. 

Old  outlet  of  Great  ^alt  Lake  at  Red  Rock  Gap.  The  level  part  in  the  middle 
is  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide,  and  was  the  bottom  of  the  river.  The 
hills  in  the  foreground  were  cliffs  on  the  edge  of  the  river.  The  table-land 
in  the  background  was  the  shore  when  the  lake  was  the  highest. 

now  known  as  Red  Rock  Gap,  where  it  passed  through 
the  hills  northward  to  join  the  Snake  River. 

One  of  the  most  easily  seen  proofs  of  the  greater  size 
of  this  lake  in  former  times  is  the  old  beach  levels  or 
shores  of  the  lake  found  along  the  mountain  sides  600  feet 
and  more  above  the  present  level  of  the  lake.  Where 
rivers  entered  the  lake,  they  also  built  broad,  flat  deltas. 
These  old  beach  levels  and  deltas  which  line  the  valleys 
are  sometimes  called  benches,  and  they  form  many  of  the 


THE  GREAT  BASIN  OF  UTAH  AND  NEVADA      259 


best  irrigated  farm  lands  of  Utah.  The  great  salt  deserts 
west  of  Salt  Lake  are  portions  of  this  ancient  lake  that  are 
dried  up,  and  the  thick  layers  of  salt  prevent  all  vegetation. 

As  the  outlet  river  flowing  northward  cut  its  channel 
deeper,  it  drained  out  the  lake  and  brought  it  to  lower  levels. 
Finally,  the  climate  grew  so  dry  that  the  evaporation  was 
greater  than  the  supply  of  water  from  rivers  and  rains,  and 
the  lake  sank  below  the  outlet  and  began  to  grow  salt. 

At  the  present  time  the  lake  water  is  25  per  cent  salt, 
so    that   the    fishes   cannot   live   in  it,  and  nothing  but 


.  —  ^               -    '^"^ 

■'  -■:5;,:^T'  --"'^'''-z^r'^^^ 

^g^s^s 

■^^-^-^.^^-^sg^s^^i^^ ":.. . , ; :? 

^::-^^f^ 

WM 

Fig.  87. 

Old  beaches  of  the  lake  near  Chambers  Station.    The  uppermost  beach  was 
the  highest  point  ever  reached  by  the  lake. 

shrimps,  seaweed,  and  insects  are  found  in  and  on  its 
waters.  Swimming  is  easy  as  the  body  floats  upon  the 
heavy  water.  There  are  great  bathing  resorts  near  Salt 
Lake  City,  where  it  is  said  as  many  as  two  hundred  thou- 
sand people  come  yearly  to  enjoy  the  salt  sea-bathing. 

The  history  of  Pyramid  and  Winnemucca  lakes  in 
Nevada  is  similar  to  that  of  Salt  Lake,  and  at  one  time  it 
is  supposed  that  the  two  large  fresh-w^ater  lakes  of  Utah 
and  Nevada  were  joined  into  one  great  inland  sea. 

The  Sierra  Nevada  Range  on  the  western  limit  of  the 
Great  Basin  is  a  loftier  mountain  ridge  than  the  Wasatch. 


260 


TYPE  STUDIES 


It  receives  heavy  rains  and  snows  from  the  moist  winds  from 
the  Pacific,  and  a  part  of  this  moisture  reaches  the  eastern 
slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  forming  fresh- water  lakes  and 
rivers.  But  as  they  descend  into  the  deserts  of  Nevada, 
they  are  swallowed  up,  forming  brackish  lakes  or  sinks. 


Fig.  88. 
Saltair,  the  greatest  bathing  resort  on  the  lake. 

That  part  of  the  Great  Basin  which  lies  in  southeast- 
ern California  is  the  hot  and  blistering  Mohave  Desert. 

In  the  later  study  of  Europe,  Asia,  South  America,  and 
Africa,  we  shall  meet  with  arid  tracts  or  deserts  which 
remind  us  strongly  of  the  conditions  in  the  Great  Basin 
of  Utah  and  Nevada. 


A  GOLD  MINE  IN  CALIFORNIA 

(The  chief  part  of  this  topic  was  written  by  Miss  Maud  Valentine.) 

In  the  fall  of  1848  there  was  great  excitement  over 
California  with  its  gold  mines,  and  how  soonest  to  get 
there  was  the  ruling  question.  It  was  about  the  time  of 
the  closing  of  the  Mexican  War.  California  had  just  been 
ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Mexico.  The  gold  fever 
was  at  its  height.  San  Francisco  at  this  time  was  a  strag- 
gling village,  chiefly  of  tents  ;  a  few  wooden  houses  had 
been  built,  while  three  or  four  adobe  structures  told  of 
Mexican  occupation. 

At  this  time  the  richest  gold-producing  region  of  Cali- 
fornia, or  perhaps  of  the  world,  was  in  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains  on  the  Upper  Sacramento,  the  San  Joaquin, 
and  the  Klamath.  At  the  time  that  California  was  ceded 
to  the  United  States,  one  of  the  American  settlers  was 
Captain  John  Sutter,  who  had  settled  at  the  junction  of 
the  Sacramento  and  American  rivers,  near  tlie  present 
site  of  Sacramento,  called  then  Sutter's  Fort.  This  was 
an  important  location  because  it  was  at  the  head  of  navi- 
gation on  the  Sacramento,  and  the  first  station  on  the 
overland  route  across  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  place 
is  now  called  Colona.  Here  Captain  Sutter  built  a  flour- 
mill  to  grind  the  wheat  he  raised.  It  also  helped  him  to 
provide  proper  food  for  the  number  of  travellers  passing 
the  fort.  There  was  no  good  timber  in  the  valley  out  of 
which  to  build  his  flour-mill,  so  he  must  go  to  the  moun- 

261 


262  TYPE  STUDIES 

tains  for  it.  To  prepare  it  for  building  use  he  must 
have  a  sawmill.  So  he  called  on  James  W.  Marshall,  a 
skilful  wheelwright,  an  industrious,  generous,  but  queer 
man,  one  full  of  wild  fancies,  to  select  the  site  of  the 
sawmill. 

The  place  selected  for  the  sawmill  was  forty-five  miles 
from  Sutter's  Fort  and  connected  with  it  by  a  wagon 
road.  The  mill  was  nearly  finished,  the  dam  made,  but 
the  mill-race,  though  dug,  was  found  to  be  too  small  to 
carry  off  the  water.  So  the  channel  w^as  deepened,  and 
in  order  to  carry  the  loose  dirt,  the  gates  were  opened 
and  the  water  turned  in  and  then  turned  off  again.  On 
Monday  afternoon,  January  24,  1848,  Marshall  was  walk- 
ing in  the  dry  bed  of  the  race  to  see  if  the  water  had 
washed,  it  out  to  the  required  depth.  He  picked  up  some 
yellow  particles,  the  largest  of  which  was  about  the  size 
of  a  grain  of  wheat.  They  were  smooth,  bright,  and 
looked  like  brass.  He  thought  they  were  gold,  and  told 
some  of  the  men  at  the  mill  so,  but  they  laughed  at  him. 
He  hammered  the  metal,  and  found  it  could  be  made  into 
a  thin  sheet.  He  put  some  in  the  kitchen  fire,  and  found  it 
did  not  readily  melt  or  become  discolored.  He  compared 
its  color  with  that  of  gold  coin,  and  felt  certain  it  was  gold. 
The  next  morning  he  again  took  the  walk  and  collected 
about  a  spoonful  of  the  particles,  put  them  in  the  crown 
of  his  slouch  hat,  and  thus  carried  them  to  the  men  at  the 
sawmill.  He  took  this  a  few  days  later  to  Sutter  at  Sut- 
ter's Fort.  Here  it  was  tested  and  pronounced  gold. 
Work  at  the  mill  went  on  as  usual  for  several  months. 
There  was  no  excitement.  The  laborers  knew  nothing  of 
placer  mining.  Reports  came  of  gold  being  discovered 
in  other  places  in  California.     All  at  once  the  excitement 


A   GOLD  MINE  IN  CALIFORNIA 


263 


burst  out  and  spread  like  wild-fire.     About  June,  1848, 
"Gold  !  Gold!  was  the  topic  in  all  this  vicinity." 

The  news  of  the  discovery  spread  from  the  little  fort  to 
the  seacoast  and  to  all  the  world.  Captain  Sutter's  men 
deserted  him  to  look  for  gold,  next  the  Indians  and  the 
American  settlers  caught  the  fever.  Miners  from  these 
new  gold  districts  began  to  straggle  into  San  Francisco 
with  their  pouches  of  gold-dust.  The  effect  was  wonder- 
ful. Towns  were  deserted.  Students  left  their  colleges, 
blacksmiths  left  their  anvils,  sailors  their  ships,  lawyers 
their  offices,  even  fields  of  grain  ready  for  harvest  were 


Fig.  89. 
Travelling  to  California  in  the  Pioneer  Days. 

left  to  take  care  of  themselves.  From  all  parts  of  the 
world  flocked  men  to  dig  gold  ;  Mexicans,  Yankees  from 
New  England,  Chinamen,  a  few  Indians,  Frenchmen, 
Germans,  Italians,  Russians,  and  many  outcasts  of  society, 
until  there  was  a  mixed  population  such  as  no  other  coun- 
try could  imitate.  It  was  a  ragged,  dirty,  unshaven, 
good-natured  crowd.  Three  thousand  miles  lay  between 
the  old  states  and  this  land  of  gold,  yet  there  were  cara- 
vans everywhere  for  California  ;  ships  in  every  port  for 
California.     "  Ho  !  for  California,"  was  the  cry. 

A  miner's  outfit  consisted  of  a  pair  of  serviceable  shirts, 
a    change    of   trousers,  strong    cowhide   boots,  buckskin 


264  .  TYPE  STUDIES 

gauntleted  gloves,  slouch  hat,  and  a  pair  of  woollen  blankets 
strapped  on  his  shoulders.  In  his  belt  he  carried  a  couple 
of  revolvers  and  a  bowie-knife,  and  on  his  back  was  slung 
his  rifle.  By  the  time  he  reached  his  destination  he  had  in 
his  outfit  frying-pans,  a  coffee-pot,  a  small  iron  kettle,  tin 
cups,  plates,  a  knife,  fork,  and  spoon.  A  tent  was  a  good 
thing  to  have,  but  he  could  get  along  without  it,  as  there  i.s 
no  fear  of  rain  from  May  to  October  in  California.  A 
rubber  blanket  spread  over  boughs  and  on  this  his  woollen 
blankets  formed  his  bed.  He  also  had  a  supply  of  bacon, 
flour,  salt,  saleratus,  beans,  and  a  few  candles.  His  bill  of 
fare  did  not  vary  much  for  breakfast,  dinner,  or  supper. 
The  tools  he  needed  for  his  work  were  few  and  inexpen- 
sive. .All  that  was  needed  to  get  the  gold  was  to  wash  it 
out  of  the  gravel.  This  could  be  done  easily,  for  gold  is 
many  times  heavier  than  water.  The  gravel  was  placed 
in  a  pan  with  water  and  shaken  around  vigorously;  the 
gold  quickly  settled  to  the  bottom,  and  the  gravel  was 
poured  off  with  the  water.  A  few  washings  would  leave 
the  gold  clean.  A  pick,  pan,  shovel,  dipper,  and  bucket 
were  all  the  tools  needed.  If  the  gravel  paid  25  cents  a 
pan,  a  miner  would  make  |15  a  day  ;  often  he  made 
much  more  than  this. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  upon  reaching  the  gold  dis- 
trict was  to  look  around  for  a  claim  or  to  begin  to  prospect. 
To  prospect  was  to  find  a  spot  that  looked  favorable  and 
make  an  examination  of  it.  The  miner  would  take  a  pan 
of  earth,  shake  and  whirl  it  under  water,  raise  and  tip  it 
frequently  to  run  the  dirt  and  water  off,  then  plunge  it  in 
again,  and  so  continue  until  a  small  amount  of  blacks  and 
gold  remained.  A  speck  of  gold  was  the  "  color,"  several 
specks  were  "  several  colors,  "  and  the  number  and  size  de- 


A   GOLD  MINE  IN  CALIFOBNIA  265 

termined  the  miner  whether  he  should  go  to  work  or  move 
on.  At  first  each  miner  occupied  all  the  ground  he,  de- 
sired. Later  a  law  was  made  limiting  claims  to  a  certain 
size.  This  varied  in  different  camps,  and  depended  some- 
what upon  the  richness  of  the  earth.  Generally  a  miner 
was  restricted  to  fifteen  feet  front  on  the  river.  Leaving 
mining  tools  on  a  claim  in  the  absence  of  a  claimant  was  suf- 
ficient to  hold  the  claim  for  ten  days.  The  deposits  of  gold 
were  on  land  belonging  to  the  national  government  which, 
without  charge,  supervision,  or  permit,  allowed  every  citizen 
to  take  all  the  gold  from  any  claim  held  in  accordance  with 
the  local  regulations  adopted  by  the  miners  of  his  district. 

The  first  impression  on  seeing  a  miner  at  work  is  not 
pleasant.  He  is  a  rough,  dirty-looking  man  in  a  dry  ravine. 
The  banks  are  almost  as  high  as  his  shoulders.  A  double- 
barrelled  shot-gun  lies  on  the  edge  of  the  bank  within 
easy  reach.  He  is  picking  up  dry  clay  and  gravel  from  the 
bottom  of  the  ravine,  pulverizing  it  in  his  pan  with  a 
stone,  and  then  shaking  it  about  until  the  light  particles 
come  to  the  top.  These  he  brushes  over  the  rim.  The 
pulverizing  and  shaking  continue  until  a  small  quantity  of 
dust  and  gold  are  left  in  the  bottom.  The  dust  is  blown 
out  with  the  breath.     This  is  called  "dry  washing." 

Two  miners  usually  worked  together  as  partners.  The 
simplest  way  of  washing  gold-bearing  earth  was  with  the 
pan.  A  rocker  was  procured  as  soon  as  it  could  be  afforded. 
It  was  the  most  expensive  tool  of  the  miner,  though  simple 
in  construction,  costing  from  $50  to  $100.  In  general 
appearance  it  was  not  unlike  a  baby's  cradle,  such  as  our 
grandmothers  used.  It  had  a  flat  bottom,  two  sides  that 
flared  outward  and  one  end  board  at  the  head,  while  the 
foot  was  open,'^  save  a  riffle  about  one  and  a  half  inches 


266  TYPE  STUDIES 

high,  at  the  bottom  to  catch  the  gold  that  might  pass, 
another  riffle  across  the  bottom  near  the  middle.  At  the 
head  of  the  cradle  or  rocker  was  a  hopper  about  eighteen 
inches  square,  with  a  perforated  sheet-iron  bottom  or  a 
bottom  made  of  wire  screen.  Under  this  was  a  board 
sloping  downwards  toward  the  head.  Two  strong,  sub- 
stantial rockers  under  the  whole  completed  the  simple 
machine. 

This  is  the  way  the  two  partners  worked.  Two  sticks 
of  wood  hewn  on  the  upper  side  were  embedded  at  the 
river's  brink,  one  four  inches  lower  than  the  other,  on 
which  the  rockers  were  to  rest,  thus  securing  a  grade  in 
the  machine  to  facilitate  the  outward  flow  of  the  sand 
and  water.  One  shovelled  the  earth  into  the  hopper  of 
the  rocker,  while  the  other,  seated  on  a  big  rock  or  a 
block  of  wood,  dipped  the  water  from  the  river  and 
poured  it  upon  the  earth  in  the  hopper  with  one  hand,  all 
the  time  rocking  with  the  other.  When  the  earth  was 
thoroughly  washed,  he  rose,  lifted,  the  hopper  from  its 
place,  threw  out  the  stones  and  gravel,  and  replaced 
it.  Thus  the  work  went  on.  At  noon  the  gold  and 
black  sand  collected  above  the  riffles  were  taken  up  on  a 
scraper  and  thrown  into  a  pan,  which  was  carried  to  the 
river  and  carefully  washed  to  remove,  as  far  as  possible,  all 
but  the  gold.  When  ground  was  very  rich,  the  rocker  was 
cleaned  of  gold  every  hour  or  two.  The  yield  of  the  fore- 
noon was  carried  to  the  camp,  dried  over  the  blaze,  the 
dry  sand  being  blown  out  with  the  breath,  the  gold  weighed 
in  scales  or  guessed  at,  then  poured  into  the  partnership 
purse  and  deposited  under  the  bed  or  elsewhere  out  of 
sight.  Gold  was  seldom  stolen,  for  a  theft  was  so  se- 
verely dealt  with  that  one  seldom  occurred. 


A   GOLD  MINE  IN  CALIFORNIA  267 

The  first  gold  washing  was  on  the  bars  of  the  rivers,  and 
at  first  only  two  or  three  feet  of  gravel  covered  the  gold. 
That  taken  from  the  river  bars  was  mostly  in  the  form  of 
scales  resembling  cucumber  seeds,  and  of  varying  size.  It 
was  most  plentiful  on  the  bed-rock  or  in  a  few  inches  of 
soil  above  it.  Gravel  was  rich  if  it  paid  25  cents  a  pan. 
A  man  could  dig  and  wash  fifty  or  sixty  ;>ans  a  day.  With 
a  rocker  he  could  do  three  times  as  much.  The  richest 
gravel  was  on  the  Bear,  the  Yuba,  and  the  American 
rivers,  and  a  pan  often  yielded  from  $1  to  $5. 

When  the  rainy  season  began  in  the  winter  1848,  and  the 
rivers  rose  and  covered  the  bars,  the  miners  were  driven 
back  into  the  ravines  and  mountains.  The  deposits  here 
were  almost  as  rich  as  in  the  bars.  Often  a  man  could 
take  out  several  hundreds  or  even  a  thousand  dollars  a  day. 
It  was  not  uncommon  to  hear  on  good  authority  that  a 
miner  had  taken  out  $1000  in  a  day,  or  even  $5000.  In 
1848  the  miners  usually  got  $16  a  day,  and  if  a  claim  did 
not  yield  so  much,  it  was  not  worth  working. 

When  the  work  of  the  day  was  over,  around  the  supper 
fire  the  events  of  the  day  were  discussed,  earnings  com- 
pared, reports  made  of  grizzly  bears  or  deer  being  seen  or 
killed,  or  of  better  diggings  of  gold  discovered.  "  Coarse 
gold,"  that  is,  gold  found  in  lumps,  was  a  charm  to  the  or- 
dinary miner.  His  claim  might  be  paying  him  an  ounce 
a  day  in  fine  gold — an  ounce  is  reckoned  at  $16  —  but  he 
was  always  interested  in  some  reported  diggings  far  away, 
where  the  product  was  in  lumps.  Not  infrequently  he 
left  a  good  mine  to  seek  some  richer  El  Dorado.  The  be- 
setting fault  of  the  early  miner  was  unrest.  He  was  for- 
ever seeking  better  fortune. 

The  homes  of  the  miners  were  varied  indeed.     Many  of 


268  TYPE  STUDIES 

them  lived  in  cabins  or  shanties  made  of  boards  and  pine 
boughs,  in  log  huts,  in  Indian  skin-lodges,  but  most  of  them 
lived  in  common  soldiers'  tents  about  eight  feet  square  the 
entire  winter.  The  weather  at  no  time  is  very  cold  in 
California.  February  is  much  like  our  May.  They  often 
kept  warm  by  building  a  huge  fireplace  in  front  of  the  tent 
that  sent  through  the  thin  cotton  dwelling  a  warm  glow. 

During  the  winter  of  184:9-1850  the  cost  of  living  was 
extreme.  Flour  reached  $1  a  pound,  or  $50  a  barrel,  rice 
the  same,  pork  and  bacon  $1.60  a  pound,  saleratus  $16  a 
pound,  and  candles  $1  each.  A  pair  of  long-legged  boots 
cost  f  100,  and  expressage  for  a  letter  $4.  An  ounce  of 
gold  ($16)  was  the  price  of  a  pick  or  shovel,  a  common 
spade  cost  $10.  A  miner  carried  a  leather  pouch  and  bal- 
ance, and  when  making  purchases,  weighed  out  the  neces- 
sary amount  of  gold  to  pay  the  bill. 

That  all  miners  did  not  get  rich  might  be  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  it  took  a  fair  claim  to  pay  expenses, 
the  short  duration  of  a  placer  claim,  the  loss  of  time  in 
finding  another,  and  the  too  general  restlessness.  Gam- 
bling or  the  excessive  use  of  whiskey  told  the  story  of  many 
failures  to  realize  a  fortune. 

The  ''  long  torn"  came  into  use  early  as  the  successor  of 
the  rocker.  It  was  a  trough  of  boards  ten  or  twelve  feet 
long,  two  feet  wide  at  the  bottom,  with  sides  eight  or  ten 
inches  high,  and  was  furnished  with  a  perforated  sheet- 
iron  plate  three  feet  long,  which  had  the  end  part  curved 
upward  to  catch  the  stones  and  gravel,  while  the  water, 
sand,  and  small  gravel  dropped  through  it  into  a  riffle-box 
below,  set  on  an  incline  to  allow  the  lighter  matter  to  pass 
off  with  the  water  ;  the  long  tom  was  put  on  an  easy  grade 
and  supplied  with  a  constant  stream  of  flowing  water,  enough 


A    GOLD  MINE  IN   CALIFORNIA  269 

to  drive  and  wash  all  the  earth  thrown  into  it  down  upon 
the  perforated  screen.  Two  or  more  men  shovelled  the 
earth  into  the  torn  and  one  threw  out  the  stones  from  the 
screen  with  a  fork  or  square-pointed  shovel,  when  they 
were  sufficiently  washed.  As  the  claim  was  worked  back, 
the  long  tom  was  extended  by  means  of  sluice-boxes  until 
a  dozen  or  more  miners  were  shovelling  dirt  into  them  on 
both  sides.  Afterwards  it  was  found  that  by  putting  rif- 
fles into  the  sluice-boxes,  the  long  tom  could  be  dispensed 
with,  and  miles  of  sluices  of  all  sizes  were  seen,  some  sup- 
plied with  a  few  inches  of  running  water,  while  others 
bore  torrents  of  the  muddy  fluid. 

The  sluice  requiring  a  rapid  flow  of  water  was  set  on  a 
grade  of  say  four  inches  to  twelve  feet  in  length.  It  is 
plain  to  see  that  in  a  short  distance  the  pay  dirt  would 
have  to  be  lifted  higher  than  the  miner's  head.  Some- 
times the  earth  was  thrown  by  one  set  of  miners  up  on 
a  platform,  to  be  shovelled  by  another  set  into  the  sluice. 
Numerous  small  boulders  were  kept  in  the  sluice,  around 
and  over  which  the  water  boiled  and  leaped,  dissolving  the 
clay.  When  the  gold  was  fine  and  difficult  to  save, 
quicksilver  was  poured  into  the  sluices  to  catch  it. 
Quicksilver  will  dissolve  gold  as  readily  as  water  dis- 
solves sugar.  From  the  compound  thus  formed,  which  is 
called  amalgam,  the  quicksilver  can  easily  be  removed  by 
distillation. 

More  and  more,  water  was  made  to  do  the  work  of  the 
miner.  Instead  of  carrying  the  dirt  in  buckets  to  the 
river  to  be  washed,  the  river  was  carried  to  the  dirt.  By 
canals  from  rivers  the  water  was  carried  at  great  expense 
to  a  gold-bearing  bank  of  gravel  in  some  mountain  gorge. 
It  found  its  way  through  strong  iron  tubing  or  hose,  and 


270  TYPE  STUDIES 

large  quantities  were  forced  through  nozzles  and  thrown 
with  terrific  force  against  the  banks  of  the  gold-bearing 
gravel.  Ditches  dug  in  the  earth  at  a  moderate  grade,  or 
sluices  of  lumber,  caught  the  gravel  as  it  came  tumbling 
down,  and  separated  the  gold,  leaving  it  on  the  bottom. 
A  steady  throw  of    water  against  a  bank  was  kept  up 


Fig.  90. 
Washing  gold  from  gravel  beds  in  California  by  means  of  hydraulic  mining. 

for  days,  even  months,  without  stopping  night  or  day. 
Three  men  working  a  strong  jet  of  water  can  wear  down, 
a  hill  faster  than  a  hundred  men  could  with  shovels. 
Sometimes  the  stones  and  gravel  of  the  hillside  are 
loosened  by  blasting  before  the  stream  of  water  is  turned 
on.  Such  a  stream  turned  on  a  gravel  bank  will  hollow 
great  caves  in  it,  causing  tons  of  earth  and  gravel  to  fall 
every  few  minutes  into  the  sluice  beneath.     This  water- 


A   GOLD  MINE  IN   CALIFORNIA 


271 


jet  method  is  called  hydraulic  mining,  and  was  introduced 
in  California  in  1852.  The  expense  of  building  dams  and 
flumes,  and  in  laying  water-mains  to  the  gold-bearing 
gravel  banks  was  great,  so  that  large  capital  was  necessary 
in  this  mode  of  mining. 

A  second  more  difficult  and  expensive  mode  of  mining 
is  that  of  digging  the  crude  ore  out  of  the  veins  of  metal 


Fig.  91. 
The  timbering  of  a  mine. 

which  lie  embedded  between  rock  layers  of  solid  quartz. 
A  hole  is  dug  which  runs  down  slanting  into  the  side  of 
the  mountain,  following  the  vein  of  ore.  After  the  sands 
of  the  river  bottoms  had  been  washed  out  by  placer  min- 
ing, these  rich,  gold-bearing  veins  were  searched  out  by 
prospectors,  and,  where  found,  deep  shafts  were  sunk. 
This  required  engines  and  hoisting  machinery,  tools  and 
blasting  materials,  curbing  and  wooden  supports  for  the 
shaft  sand  galleries,  so  that  it  was  very  expensive,  and  only 
capitalists  could  afford  to  develop  a  mine,  even  if  it  was 
known  to  contain  good  ore. 


272 


TYPE  STUDIES 


The  ore  in  these  veins  is  also  mixed  with  other  metals, 
as  silver,  lead,  and  copper,  as  well  as  with  rock  and  dirt. 
After  it  is  taken  from  the  mine  it  is  usually  carried  to  a 
stamp  mill  near  by,  where  it  is  crashed  to  powder,  then 
put  in  sacks  and  shipped  to  some  larger  town,  where  there 
is  a  great  smelter  for  melting  and  separating  the  different 
ores,  rock,  etc. 

This  is  now  the  common  method  of  mining  from 
Colorado  to  California,  and  from  New  Mexico  to  Idaho 


Fig.  92. 

Miners  at  work  underground. 

and  Montana.  As  one  travels  through  the  mountain  val- 
leys, one  often  sees  far  up  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountain 
side  the  entrance  to  one  of  these  mines,  with  the  piles  of 
rock  and  dirt  at  its  mouth.  In  the  valley  below  he  may 
hear  the  thump  of  the  stamp  mills  where  the  ore  is  being 
crushed. 

As  the  shaft  is  sunk  into  the  mountain,  galleries  are 
run  out  on  either  side,  and  occasionally  a  tunnel  is  dug 
from  the  lower  end  of  the  mine  to  the  bottom  of  the  val- 
ley on  the  same  level.     In  some  of  the  rich,  productive 


A   GOLD  MINE  IN  CALIFORNIA  273 

mines,  like  the  Comstock  of  Virginia  City,  Nevada,  and  in 
the  silver  mines  of  Leadville  and  in  the  copper  mines  of 
Butte,  Montana,  the  shafts  are  sunk  miles  into  the  earth, 
with  a  great  network  of  galleries  many  miles  in  extent. 
In  the  Comstock  lode  the  heat  of  the  earth  was  so  great 
in  the  lower  depths  that  the  work  had  to  be  abandoned. 
Some  of  the  richest  mining  districts  are  Leadville,  ten 
,  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  Cripple  Creek  near  Pike's 
Peak,  Butte,  Montana,  Tucson,  Arizona,  the  region  near 


Fig.  93. 
A  Smelter  at  Great  Falls,  Montana. 

Salt  Lake  City,  and  parts  of  Idaho,  New  Mexico,  and 
California. 

The  great  smelters  are  usually  located  at  those  cities 
where  large  quantities  of  ore  can  be  easily  collected,  as  at 
Pueblo,  Denver,  Great  Falls,  Butte,  and  Leadville. 

In  the  production  of  gold  and  silver  Colorado  stands 
first,  with  nineteen  millions  of  gold  and  nearly  twenty- 
eight  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  silver  in  a  year. 
Montana  and  California  are  second. 

The  results  of  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  were 
remarkable.  There  was  such  a  rush  of  new  settlers  that 
in  1850  California  was  admitted  as  a  state.  Roads  were 
opened  up  across  the  mountains,  and  the  other  mountain 


274 


TYPE    STUDIES 


states  were  settled.  lu  1859  gold  was  discovered  in 
Colorado,  and  another  great  rush  of  emigrants  followed. 
The  rapid  growth  of  gold  and  silver  mining  led  also  to 
the  development  of  agriculture,  lumbering,  fruit-growing, 


Fig.  94. 


stock-raising  and  irrigation  of  arid  lands.  Large  cities, 
such  as  Denver,  Los  Angeles,  San  Francisco,  Portland, 
Seattle,  Pueblo,  Salt  Lake  City,  Oakland,  and  Sacramento 
have  grown  up.  The  lirst  Pacific  road  was  completed  in 
1867,  and  since  then  many  others  have  crossed  the  plains 
and  mountains. 


THE  SALMON  FISHERIES  OF  THE   COLUMBIA 

The   fresh   and    canned   salmon   often   found   on   our 
tables  come  from  the  Columbia  River  and  other  streams 


\^^\^\JtQ^Ky  ir   CO.,   n\y. 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


60  100  150  200  250  aOO 

Fig.  95. 
The  Columbia  River. 


of  the  northwest.     From  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  for 
many  miles  up  the  broad  river  the  salmon  fisheries  are 


275 


276  TYPE    STUDIES 

numerous,  and  the  number  of  men  and  amount  of  capital 
employed  in  the  business  great. 

Astoria,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  once  famous  as  the 
centre  of  the  fur  trade,  is  now  of  chief  importance  as  a 
fishing  town.  Large  quantities  of  newly  caught  salmon 
are  brought  in  by  boats  to  this  point  and  either  put  in 
cold  storage  or  run  through  the  big  canneries. 

The  fishing  business  is  based  upon  the  peculiar  habits 
and  life  history  of  the  salmon,  which  must  be  first  under- 
stood. 

The  salmon  passes  part  of  its  life  in  the  fresh  waters  of 
rivers  and  part  in  the  salt  waters  of  the  ocean  along  the 
western  coasts.  Far  up  among  the  creeks  and  brooks 
that  form  the  head  waters  of  the  Columbia,  a  thousand 
miles  or  more  from  the  river's  mouth,  the  little  salmon 
eggs  hatch  out  and  the  tiny  fish  live  for  a  while  in  the 
icy  waters  that  come  down  from  the  snows  in  the  moun- 
tains. As  they  grow  a  few  months  older  they  drift  down 
the  river  with  the  current,  feeding  and  growing  larger  as 
they  descend,  till  after  some  months  they  reach  the  brack- 
ish waters  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  After  getting  ac- 
customed to  the  salt  water,  the}^  venture  out  into  the 
ocean,  where  they  make  their  home  for  three  or  four 
years  not  far  from  the  coast  and  near  the  river  mouths. 
Here  the  salmon  steadily  grows  to  a  powerful  fish,  weigh- 
ing about  forty  pounds.  Sometimes  the  largest  specimens 
weigh  eighty  or  ninety  pounds. 

In  July  or  August,  when  about  four  years  old  and  in 
prime  condition,  the  salmon  start  up  the  river  again  to 
their  birthplace  at  the  foot  of  tlie  mountains.  If  they 
escape  the  nets  and  traps  of  the  fisherman,  they  boldly 
push  against  the  current,  leap  the  rapids  and  falls,  and. 


THE    SALMON    FISHERIES    OF    THE    COLUMBIA      277 

without  stopping  to  eat,  ascend  the  upper  Columbia  till 
they  reach  some  smaller  stream. 

"Here  the  males  and  females,  much  wasted  in  flesh 
from  their  fasting,  pair  off,  and  in  some  brawling  stream, 
near  a  lake  by  preference,  they  dig  a  nest,  using  heads, 
tails,  and  fins  with  almost  human  intelligence.  The  male 
by  this  time  has  developed  a  formidable  hooked  beak, 
with  which  he  fights  savagely  for  the  rights  of  his  home. 
Here  the  eggs  are  laid,  from  one  to  six  thousand  to  each 
fish.  Carried  down-stream  by  the  swift  water,  a  large 
proportion  are  lost,  many  being  seized  as  rare  tidbits  by 
waiting  trout.  But  a  few  drop  among  the  loose  stones 
at  the  lower  edge  of  the  nest,  where  they  are  protected  in 
holes  and  crevices  until  hatching  time." 

In  a  few  months  the  eggs  hatch  out  and  the  little 
salmon  soon  begin  their  journey  down  the  river  to  the 
sea. 

During  July  and  August,  when  thousands  and  tens  of 
thousands  of  salmon  swarm  up  the  river,  the  fishermen 
are  in  wait  for  them  with  traps,  nets,  water-wheels,  and 
even  with  spears  in  Indian  fashion,  to  capture  as  many  as 
possible.  All  along  the  lower  Columbia  the  fishing  sta- 
tions are  numerous,  and  above  the  falls  in  the  narrower 
part  of  the  river  there  are  many  fishermen  at  work.  Even 
in  early  days  when  Lewis  and  Clark  made  their  great  ex- 
ploring trip  down  the  Columbia,  the  Indians  lived  chiefly 
upon  the  salmon  which  they  caught  and  cured  in  large 
quantities. 

Since  1876  the  salmon  fisheries  of  the  Columbia  have 
grown  to  great  importance,  and  the  product  is  worth  many 
millions  of  dollars. 

There  are  several  interesting  modes  of  taking  the  fish 


278  TYPE    STUDIES 

as  they  make  their  runs  up  the  stream.  One  of  the  most 
successful  of  these  is  by  the  use  of  the  trap. 

In  the  shallow  waters  where  piles  can  be  driven  down 
in  a  row,  a  strong  netting  is  stretched  along  these  piles 
and  reaching  from  the  bottom  of  the  river  above  the  sur- 
face, its  upper  end  being  farther  up  the  stream  and  ter- 
minating in  a  circular  trap,  that  is,  a  circle  of  piles,  about 
twenty  feet  in  diameter  and  also  enclosed  in  a  net.  A 
second  circular  net  inside  the  piling  can  be  raised  and 
lowered.  As  the  fish  ascend  the  river  against  the  current, 
they  come  against  the  long  netting  stretched  upon  the 
piling,  and  nosing  along  this  toward  the  side  which  is 
higher  up  the  stream  they  enter  the  door  of  the  trap. 
When  there  is  a  good  run  of  fish  they  sometimes  pile  up 
so  thick  as  to  completely  fill  the  net.  Fishermen  in  a 
small  boat  then  enter  the  net  and  gather  in  the  fish. 

Much  fishing  is  also  done  by  seining  in  the  shallow 
places  near  the  shore.  When  the  tide  is  high  the  long 
seines  are  stretched  across  the  shallow  places  and  at  ebb 
tide  are  drawn  in  by  men  and  horses,  wading  in  the 
waters.  Sometimes  they  get  a  rich  haul  of  fish  to  be 
sent  to  the  canneries. 

In  the  main  current  of  the  river  the  fishing  is  done 
mostly  by  gill-nets.  A  gill-net  is  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in 
length  and  is  stretched  across  the  current,  its  lower  edge 
sunk  thirty  feet  or  more  into  the  water  by  weights.  This 
huge  net  floats  down  the  river  with  the  current  and  re- 
turns again  with  the  incoming  tide,  the  fishermen  attend- 
ing and  watching  it  in  boats.  The  fish  ascending  the 
river  run  their  noses  through  the  meshes  of  the  net  and 
are  caught  by  the  gills.  The  disturbance  of  the  net 
shows    when  a  big  salmon  is  caught  and  the  fisherman 


THE    SALMON    FISHERIES    OF    THE    COLUMBIA      279 

comes,  lifts  the  net,  and  brings  him  flopping  into  the  boat. 
Sometimes  the  fishermen  follow  their  nets  a  whole  day 
and  more  without  catching  a  salmon,  and  again  when  the 
run  is  good  they  may  take  hundreds.  There  is  much 
danger  that  a  steamer  or  tug  ascending  the  river  will  run 
across  one  of  the  nets  and  tear  it  to  pieces  or  carry  it  away, 
causing  great  loss  to  the  fishermen.  The  weather  is  often 
stormy  and  foggy,  and  where  the  river  meets  the  swell  of 
the  ocean,  boats  are  often  lost  and  fishermen  drowned. 


Fig.  96. 
A  fishing  wheel  on  the  Columbia  River. 


Still  another  method  of  fishing  is  common  along  the 
narrower  parts  of  the  upper  Columbia.  A  great  water 
wheel  is  attached  to  a  flat-boat  or  at  the  end  of  a  wooden 
pier  built  out  into  the  river.  The  current  of  the  river, 
striking  the  paddles  of  the  big  wheel,  send  it  whirling. 
Three  large  nets  are  attached  to  this  wheel,  and  the 
salmon  ascending  the  river  are  caught  in  these  nets, 
lifted  out  of  the  water  and  thrown  by  the  revolving  wheel 
into  a  trough  by  which  they  slide  into  the  hold  of  a  large 
boat.     The   fisherman  needs  only  to  keep  his  wheel  in 


280 


TYPE    STUDIES 


working  order  as  the  current  of  the  river  does  all  the 
work. 

Many  salmon  are  also  taken  by  dip-nets  and  by  spear- 
ing. As  the'  salmonf,  'therefore,  starts  on  his  long  journey 
up  the  river  he  has  many  dangers  to  encounter  and  many 
hair-breadth  escapes  before  he  reaches  the  cold  waters  of 
his  early  home. 

At  Astoria  the  river  is  nine  miles  wide,  and  the  broad 
expanse  is  frequented  during  the  fishing  season  with  many 
boats.     At  the  mouth  of  the  river,  ten  miles  away,  the 


Fig.  97. 

Catching  salmon  in  dip-nets  as  they  leap  over  the  falls  on  their  way  to  the 
waters  where  they  spawn. 


shallows  are  thickly  set  with  the  stakes  and  piles  of  the 
fishing  traps.  All  along  the  lower  Columbia,  at  intervals, 
are  the  large  canneries  where  the  fish  are  received  and 
prepared  for  the  markets  of  the  world. 

The  work  of  catching  the  salmon  by  the  different  meth- 
ods described  above  is  in  the  hands  of  white  men  and 
Indians.  The  Portuguese,  Scandinavians,  Italians,  and 
other  Europeans,  as  well  as  Americans,  carry  on  this  work 
and  deliver  the  fresh  fish  at  the  canneries  or  to  large  boats 
sent  out  to  receive  them.  The  canneries  are  owned  by 
capitalists  who  can  afford  the  money  necessary  for  carry- 


i 


THE    SALMON    FISHERIES    OF    THE    COLUMBIA      281 

ing  on  a  large  business.  But  the  labor  of  cleaning,  can- 
ning, and  storing  the  fish  is  in  the  hands  of  Chinamen, 
who  are  very  expert.  "  The  Chinese  are  vastly  superior 
to  white  labor  in  these  monotonous,  machine-tending 
operations.  All  day  the  season  through  they  will  work 
swiftly,  steadily,  untiringly  at  some  minute  detail ,  of  the 
work.  Owing  to  the  exclusion  laws,  the  Chinese  who  are 
already  in  the  country  are  becoming  labor  aristocrats, 
with  well-organized  unions  and  a  very  distinct  knowl- 
edge of  their  own  indispensability  in  the  canning  in- 
dustry." 

The  notes  here  presented  on  the  present  methods  of 
salmon  canning  were  taken  in  1896  at  a  cannery  on  the 
Columbia  River,  and  with  few  exceptions  represent  the 
canneries  of  the  entire  west  coast. 

The  buildings  connected  with  a  salmon  cannery  are 
always  built  at  the  water's  edge  or  partly  over  the  water, 
so  that  vessels  or  boats  may  come  alongside  and  deliver 
their  fish  and  supplies  or  receive  the  packed  products. 
As  a  rule  they  are  large,  roomy,  one-story  frame  struc- 
tures, the  business  of  receiving,  cooking,  and  packing  of 
salmon  all  being  in  the  one  large,  high,  and  well-lighted 
room.  The  lofts  are  used  for  the  storage  of  empty  pack- 
ing-cases, empty  cans,  nets,  etc.,  and  in  some  instances 
large  rooms  are  there  used  for  the  manufacture  of  cans. 
Adjacent  to  the  cannery  are  the  rude  quarters  in  which 
the  Chinese  employees  live,  and  near  by  is  usually  the 
home  of  the  superintendent. 

Chinese  have  a  monopoly  in  the  canning  of  salmon,  but 
never  engage  in  their  capture.  Before  the  season  opens 
contracts  are  made  with  some  large  Chinese  firm  of  San 
Francisco  or  Portland  to  do  the  work  so  far  as  relates  to 


282  TYPE    STUDIES 

receiving  raw  products  and  turning  the  same  over  canned, 
packed,  and  ready  for  shipment. 

As  a  rule  the  fish  are  bought  from  the  fishermen  at  so 
much  a  piece  or  per  pound,  a  stipulated  price  for  the  sea- 
son having  previously  been  agreed  on ;  but  in  some  cases 
the  fishermen  are  hired  by  the  month,  with  or  without 
board,  the  fishing  boats  and  nets,  in  that  event,  being 
furnished  by  the  cannery. 

Contracts  with  the  Chinese  usually  call  for  the  packing 
of  at  least  a  certain  number  of  cases,  of  48  pounds  each, 
at  prices  ranging  from  30  to  40  cents  a  case  for  one-pound 
cans,  and  higher  for  half-pound,  oval,  or  other  special 
cans. 

A  working  gang  of  from  thirty  to  seventy-five  Chinese, 
in  charge  of  a  native  expert  foreman,  is  sent  to  the  can- 
nery in  advance  of  the  opening  of  the  season.  The  men 
are  constantly  under  the  orders  of  the  Chinese  foreman,  and 
he  in  turn  is  under  the  supervision  of  the  superintendent. 
The  foreman  divides  up  the  duties,  assigning  a  gang  for 
each  part  of  the  work  from  the  time  the  fish  are  landed  until 
they  are  cased  for  shipment.  These  gangs  follow  their 
particular  part  of  the  work  all  through  the  season,  only  in 
exceptional  cases  being  called  to  any  branch  except  their 
own.  The  receiving  and  dressing  gang,  being  the  first  to 
begin,  are  the  first  to  finish  their  labor,  while  the  packers 
are  the  last  to  begin  and  end  the  work  of  the  day.  If  fish 
are  plentiful,  all  of  the  men  work  from  about  7  A.M.  to  6 
P.M.,  with  only  a  stop  for  the  midday  meal.  If  salmon 
are  scarce,  the  men  may  have  but  a  few  hours'  work. 

On  the  completion  of  the  work  of  any  gang,  the  men 
must,  before  leaving,  thoroughly  clean  their  section;  in 
doing  so  a  hose  is  used,  with  abundance  of  water,  brooms. 


THE  SALMON  FISHERIES   OF  THE  COLUMBIA      283 

and  scrubbing-brushes ;  and  when  the  day's  work  is  over 
the  interior,  platforms,  and  wharves  are  left  scrupulously 
clean  and  ready  for  the  work  of  the  following  day. 

As  the  fishermen  arrive,  their  catch  is  thrown  out  on 
the  wharf,  where  it  is  received  by  the  Chinese  and  carried 
inside  the  cannery  and  thrown  into  boxes  on  the  scales. 
Having  been  weighed,  a  receipt  is  given  to  the  fishermen, 
and  the  fish  begin  their  journey  through  the  cannery,  that 


Fig.  98. 
Hundreds  of  salmon  in  a  cannery. 


only  ends  after  they  have  been  canned,  cooked,  packed, 
and  cased  ready  for  shipment. 

After  the  weighing  scales  the  fish  are  thrown  out  on  the 
floor  and  receive  their  first  washing  from  a  stream  of  water 
that  is  played  on  them  from  a  hose,  the  fish  being  turned 
over  with  a  pitchfork,  as  may  be  necessary,  to  remove  all 
gurry  and  dirt.  In  some  instances,  where  fish  are  received 
faster  than  they  can  be  immediately  handled,  they  are 
kept  cool  and  fresh  by  having,  as  needed,  a  fine  spray  of 
ice-cold  water  thrown  over  them  from  an  overhead  revolv- 
ing pipe.  The  first  gang  receive  the  fish  on  the  dressing- 
tables,  which  are  near  the  door.     Here  the  first  of  the 


284  TYPE  STUDIES 

work  begins,  and  to  follow  it  through  from  its  entrance  to 
its  exit,  canned  and  cased,  is  an  interesting  sight  to  thou- 
sands of  visitors  during  the  packing  season.  The  first 
operator  seizes  fish  after  fish,  and  with  a  few  quick  strokes 
of  a  large  butcher-knife  severs  head,  fins,  and  tail.  The 
next  man  opens  the  fish,  removes  the  viscera,  and  scrapes 
the  carcass  inside  and  out.  Through  an  opening  in  the 
floor  all  offal  and  waste  are  at  once  thrown  into  the  river 
and  quickly  consumed  by  schools  of  scavenger  fish  or  the 
large  number  of  gulls  that  hover  in  the  vicinity  waiting 
for  their  food.  At  some  of  the  canneries  near  Astoria 
receptacles  for  waste  are  provided  by  those  interested  in 
oil  and  fertilizer  factories. 

The  fish  is  then  shoved  along  to  the  man  standing  by 
the  side  of  the  header  and  cleaner  for  the  next  washing, 
and  at  the  same  time  is  scraped  with  a  knife  that  removes 
the  scales.  The  fish  is  then  passed  along  into  a  second 
tank  of  clear  water,  where  it  receives  its  final  washing 
and  cleaning  and  is  made  ready  for  cutting  into  proper- 
sized  pieces.  A  series  of  semicircular  knife-blades  is 
attached  to  a  roller,  the  blades  being  equal  distances 
apart,  corresponding  with  the  size  or  depth  of  cans  to  be 
filled ;  one  end  of  the  roller  is  hinged,  to  the  other  end  a 
handle  is  attached.  The  knives  are  raised  by  means  of 
the  handle,  the  fish  is  placed  under  them,  and  with  one 
quick,  sharp  blow  the  fish  is  entirely  cut  up  into  lengths 
suitable  for  canning.  For  one-pound  tall  cans,  seven  knives 
are  attached  to  the  roller ;  for  one-pound  flat  cans,  thir- 
teen knives;  for  one-half-pound  cans,  seventeen  knives. 
The  fish  are  now  in  suitable  lengths,  but  must  be  sliced 
into  sizes  proper  to  enter  the  cans ;  this  is  quickly  per- 
formed, and  the  pieces  are  passed  on  to  the  filling  gang. 


THE    SALMON    FISHERIES    OF    THE    COLUMBIA      285 

Several  men  stand  at  one  or  both  sides  of  the  filling- 
table,  each  supplied  with  small  scales  adjusted  to  the 
weight  of  the  cans  to  be  filled.  In  some  canneries  cans  are 
filled  by  machinery,  but  this  is  usually  done  by  hand.  As 
soon  as  filled  the  can  is  placed  on  the  scale  ;  if  it  shows 
full  or  over  weight,  it  is  passed  on,  no  fish  being  removed; 
but  if  short  weight,  the  can  is  put  to  one  side,  to  receive 
enough  to  make  up  the  deficiency. 

The  cans  are  passed  on  to  a  machine,  which  fits  a  top 
and  solders  it  on,  leaving  a  small  vent-hole  for  air  to 
escape.  After  being  tested  for  leaks,  the  cans  are  brought 
into  large  retorts  for  cooking. 

The  retorts  are  made  of  wood  or  iron,  but  are  usually 
of  boiler  iron,  have  a  round  shape,  and  are  about  thirteen 
feet  long  and  five  feet  in  diameter.  A  steam-pipe  ex- 
tends along  near  the  bottom.  This  is  perforated  for  the 
escape  of  steam,  which  passes  through  a  small  amount  of 
water  with  which  the  pipe  is  covered.  On  an  iron  track 
just  over  the  pipes  the  loaded  cars  are  run.  Retorts  usu- 
ally have  an  opening,  or  door,  at  only  one  end;  but  in  the 
cannery  now  being  described  there  was  an  opening  at  each 
end  and  two  retorts  were  used,  the  few  feet  separating 
them  being  connected  by  a  track  by  which  cars  of  coolers, 
which  pass  through  the  first  retort,  enter  the  second. 
Each  retort  has  a  capacity  of  four  cars,  or  3200  one- 
pound  tall  cans  or  2952  one-pound  flat  cans.  Cans 
of  salmon  remain  in  the  first  retort  under  a  steam 
temperature  of  230°  for  one  hour.  They  are  then  run 
out,  vented,  and  at  once  resealed.  As  the  top  of  each 
can  is  perforated  with  a  small,  sharp-pointed  iron,  the 
heated  air  or  steam  is  expelled,  and  before  its  place  can 
be  taken  with  cold  air  the  vent  is  closed  by  a  drop  of 


286  TYPE    STUDIES 

solder,  and  the  can  may  be  said  to  be  free  of  air  and  air- 
tight. The  cans  are  now  ready  for  another  cooking  in 
the  second  retort.  Here  the  temperature  is  240°,  in 
which  one-pound  tall  cans  remain  one  hour  and  flat 
cans  one  and  one-fourth  hours.  Retorts  are  under  a 
steam  pressure  of  seven  to  ten  pounds  to  the  square 
inch. 

On  removing  the  cans  from  the  retorts,  they  have  a 
stream  of  cold  water  throwiT  on  them,  by  which  they  are 
cooled  and  cleaned.  They  are  now  finally  tested  for  leaks 
or  imperfections  by  tapping  each  can  on  the  top  with  a 
small  piece  of  iron,  an  experienced  ear  quickly  detecting 
by  sound  any  imperfection.  Imperfect  cans  are  replaced 
by  others,  and  the  cans  pass  on  to  be  lacquered,  labelled, 
and  packed  in  boxes,  each  holding  forty-eight  one-pound 
cans  or  twenty-four  two-pound  cans.  They  are  then 
ready  for  a  distribution  that  reaches  almost  every  portion 
of  the  civilized  globe. 

The  cannery  at  which  these  notes  were  taken  was  pro- 
vided with  electric  lights  and  ample  steam  power;  the 
rooms  were  well  ventilated  and  lighted;  its  walls  were 
white  with  paint  or  whitewash.  It  is  located  on  the 
Columbia  River  with  the  Cascade  range  of  mountains 
towering  from  fifteen  hundred  to  twenty-five  hundred 
feet  just  at  its  back.  From  these  mountains  the  icy-cold 
and  very  pure  water  used  at  the  cannery  is  brought. 

The  salmon  fisheries  along  the  Columbia  River  have 
grown  so  rapidly  since  1876,  such  vast  numbers  have 
been  caught  and  canned,  that  there  has  been  danger  of 
exterminating  this  most  useful  species.  Not  only  has  the 
increase  of  fishermen's  nets  and  traps  made  it  difficult  for 
the  fish  to  reach  the  spawning-grounds,  but  the  upper 


THE    SALMON    FISHERIES    OF    THE    COLUMBIA       287 

streams  and  spawning-grounds  themselves  have  been 
interfered  with  by  dams  and  irrigating  ditches. 

To  protect  the  fishes  from  all  these  dangers  and  to  pre- 
serve this  great  industry,  it  has  been  necessary  for  the 
governments  of  the  Pacific  states  to  pass  laws.  "  The 
authorities  of  Oregon  and  Washington  are  much  alive 
to  the  importance  of  this  growing  industry,  and  have 
appointed  fish  wardens  to  execute  the  laws  which  control 
and  restrict  the  taking  of  fish,  the  size  of  the  nets,  the 
distance  between  nets,  and  the  definite  seasons  set  for 
fishing ;  the  object  of  these  laws  being  to  permit  enough 
fish  to  pass  up  the  streams  every  year  to  maintain  the 
spawning  supply  and  yet  to  allow  as  large  a  number  as 
possible  to  be  taken." 

The  beneficial  influence  of  the  government  is  also  seen 
in  another  way.  The  habits  of  the  salmon  have  been 
carefully  studied  by  scientific  experts  sent  out  by  the 
governments  of  the  western  states  and  of  the  United 
States.  In  many  of  the  streams  which  form  the  head 
waters  of  the  Columbia,  fish  hatcheries  have  been  estab- 
lished. "At  the  various  stations  the  native  salmon  are 
caught  in  large  numbers,  artificially  spawned,  and  the  eggs 
are  hatched  under  conditions  which  prevent  the  large 
losses  of  the  natural  spawning  beds  and  of  the  young  fry 
after  hatching.  As  soon  as  the  young  are  capable  of  car- 
ing for  themselves,  they  are  'planted'  in  the  rivers  and 
begin  their  journey  to  the  sea.  Millions  of  fry  are  thus 
distributed  each  year,  thereby  maintaining  to  a  remark- 
able degree  the  fertility  of  the  waters.  The  product  of 
the  different  salmon  hatcheries  tributary  to  the  Columbia 
River  alone,  including  two  maintained  by  the  United 
States  government,  four   by  Oregon,  and  six  by  Wash- 


288  TYPE    STUDIES 

ington,  amounted  in  1901  to  over  fifty-eight  million  fry  " 
(^Century  Magazine^  June,  1903). 

The  salmon  fisheries  are  important  not  only  along  the 
Columbia  River,  but  even  more  so  in  Puget  Sound  (partly 
in  British  America)  and  in  Alaska.  The  largest  quantity 
canned  and  shipped  is  from  Alaskan  waters.  All  the 
streams  flowing  to  the  ocean  from  Alaska  to  San  Fran- 
cisco are  important  for  salmon  fisheries,  though  the  prod- 
uct of  the  California  rivers  is  relatively  small.  "  About 
four-fifths  of  the  entire  catch  (1901)  was  in  American 
waters,  one-fifth  in  Canadian,  the  annual  product  now 
being  worth  $20,000,000." 

Fresh  salmon  are  shipped  in  large  quantities  to  the 
eastern  states,  and  even  to  London  and  other  European 
cities.  The  canned  salmon  from  the  northwest  are  now 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

A  comparison  of  the  salmon  fisheries  with  the  cod  fish- 
eries of  Gloucester  and  New  England,  previously  studied, 
will  awaken  considerable  interest. 

References:  The  Century,  June,  1903.  "Science  Sketches" 
(Jordan).  Country  Life  in  America,  June,  1903.  United  States 
Fish  Commissioner's  Reports,  Vol.  104,  No.  692  for  1899,  pp.  264- 
292. 


Fig.  99. 
Map  to  show  the  location  of  San  Francisco,  Portland,  Tacoma,  and  Seattle. 


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The  first  of  the  three  volumes  deals  with  the  chief  ocean  explorers, 
Columbus  and  Magellan,  and  with  the  pioneers  of  the  Eastern  States, 
Canada,  and  Mexico,  such  as  Champlain,  Smith,  Hudson,  De  Leon,  Cortes. 
These  stories  furnish  the  gateway  through  which  the  children  of  our  Atlantic 
States  should  enter  the  fields  of  History.  The  attempt  is  to  render  these 
complete  and  interesting  stories,  making  the  experiences  of  pioneer  life  as 
graphic  and  real  as  possible. 

Pioneers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 

Such  men  as  La  Salle,  Boone,  Robertson,  George  Rogers  Clark,  Lincoln, 
and  Sevier  supply  a  group  of  simple  biographical  stories  which  give  the 
children  a  remarkably  good  introduction  to  History.  Teachers  are  begin- 
ning to  believe  that  children  should  begin  with  tales  of  their  own  home  and 
of  neighboring  states,  and  then  move  outward  from  this  centre.  For  eastern 
children  these  stories  form  a  very  suitable  continuation  to  **  Pioneers  on 
Land  and  Sea,"  and  vice  versa. 

Pioneers  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  West 

In  some  respects  these  western  stories  are  more  interesting  and  striking 
than  those  of  the  states  farther  east,  because  of  their  physical  surroundings. 
Children  of  the  Western  or  Mountain  States  should  enjoy  these  stories  first. 
The  various  exploring  expeditions  which  opened  up  the  routes  across  the 
plains  and  mountains  are  full  of  interesting  and  instructive  incidents  and 
of  heroic  enterprise.  The  chief  figures  in  these  stories  are  men  of  the  most 
striking  and  admirable  qualities,  and  the  difficulties  and  dangers  which  they 
overcame  place  them  among  the  heroes  who  will  always  attract  and  instruct 
American  children.  Incidentally,  these  narratives  give  the  best  of  all  intro- 
ductions to  western  geography.  They  are  largely  made  up  from  source 
materials  furnished  by  the  explorers  themselves. 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


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